语言学（课堂PPT）

Unit9Politenessinconversation,1,2020/5/19,Pre-ClassReading,Differentapproachestothestudyofthelinguisticphenomenonarebrieflypresented.Oftwomostinfluentialmodelsofpoliteness,thePolitenessPrinciple(PPforshort)initsoldandnewformatsiselucidated,withtheothertheory(i.e.FaceTheory)tobedealtwithinthenextunit.,2,2020/5/19,Approachestopoliteness,A.Politenessasareal-wordgoal礼貌-交际中的一种现实目的,B.Politenessasdeference:敬重,C.Politenessasanutterance-levelphenomenon礼貌-一种话语表层现象,D.Politenessasapragmaticphenomenon礼貌-交际中的一种语用现象,3,2,A.Politenessasareal-worldgoal,Viewedasareal-worldgoal,politenessisinterpretedasagenuinedesiretobeniceorpleasanttoothers,orastheunderlyingmotivationforanindividualslinguisticbehavior.Sinceitrelatestothespeskerspersonalmotivationandpsyshologicalstate,itisofnorelevancetolinguists,pragmaticiansincluded,becausetheyhavenodirectaccesstowhatpeoplethinkorfeel.,4,2020/5/19,B.Politenessasdeference,ahighersocialstatus,greaterageorthelike,5,2020/5/19,C.Politenessasanutterance-leverphenomenon,Alongthislineofresearch,scholarsareconcernedwiththestudyofformsavailableforperformingparticularlyspeechactspolitelyandtheperceptionofpolitenessbynativeornon-nativespeakers.Ithasbeenfound,forexample,thatthemoregrammaticallycomplexorelaboratethestrategyis,themorepoliteitisratedtobe.SuchstudyisconsideredbyThomstobemoresociolinguisticthanpragmaticinnature,becausedynamiccontextfailstobebroughtintothefocusofstudy.,6,2020/5/19,D.Politenessaspragmaticphenomenon,PolitenessPrinciple,FaceTheory,clarify,rapport,threerulesofpoliteness,7,2020/5/19,RobinTolmachLakoff,AfemaleprofessoroflinguisticsattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkrley.Establishinglanguageandgenderasanobjectofstudyinlinguistics.Twobasicstrategiesforcommunication:thetransmissionofinformationandrapport.,8,2020/5/19,dontimpose/remainaloof不要强求于人,1.Cometoposttheletteronmydeskthisafternoon.2.Yousee,Ihavesomanyletterstopost,andIhavetodealwiththefaxfirst.3.Couldyouposttheletteronmydesk?4.Sorry,Ihavetoaskyoutohelpmepostthelettersonmydesk.,Itcanbeappliedtohighlyformalsituationsinwhichthereisasignificantdifferenceinpowerandstatusbetweentheinterlocutors.,9,2020/5/19,1.Iwonderifitwouldhelptogethaircut.2.Maybeyoushouldgetahaircut.3.Youmustgetahaircut.4.Getahaircut,please.,Givetheaddresseehisoptions给对方留有余地,Itisappropriateinlessformalsituationsinwhichtheinterlocutorsenjoyequalstatusandpower,butarenotfamiliarwitheachother.,10,2020/5/19,Equalityorcamaraderie:actasthoughyouandtheaddresseewereequal/makehimfeelgood.增进相互间的友情,Itisappliedtotheinterlocutorsbetweenclosefriendsandlovers.,11,2020/5/19,（1）质量准则（qualitymaxim）也就是说要尽量说真话（2）数量准则（quantitymaxim）A：使自己所说的话达到现时的交际目的所要求的详尽程度；B：不能使自己所说的话比要求的更详尽。（3）关联准则(relationmaxim)要保证你说的每一句都和目前所进行的谈话是关联的（4）方式准则（避免赘述）(mannermaxim)A：说话要清晰明了，有所指；B:不要使自己的谈话含糊不清，模棱两可，从而难于理解。,合作原则和它的四个准则,12,A：我这个裙子怎么样？B：嗯，颜色挺好的。Whynotchoosetobedirectinsayingwhattheymean?,13,Whynotchoosetobedirectinsayingwhattheymean?,WhileGricesCooperativePrincipleaswellasitsmaximshelpstodeducewhatspeakersactuallymeanbywhattheysay,itfailstoexplain,amongotherthings,whytheychoosenottobedirectinsayingwhattheymean.,14,AccordingtoGeoffrreyLeech,communicatorsgenerallyobservesomerulesofgoodbehaviorwhichhetermsthePolitenessPrinciple.Theprinciplecanexplainwhypeoplearesometimesindirectinconveyingwhattheymean.,15,从以上分析，我们可以推导出另外一个问题，那就是，“为什么人们总是用间接的方式来表达自己的真实意图呢？”格赖斯主义有它的缺陷，Grice提出了合作原则并指出对合作原则的违反就产生了会话含义，但是Grice并没有解释清楚为什么人们要违反合作原则。后来Leech从修辞和语义的角度提出了“礼貌原则”，作为对Grice合作原则的补充，Leech认为，在语言交际中，人们为了礼貌才违反了合作原则，Leech的礼貌原则有以下几条：,16,Leech礼貌原则的六个次准则（从“惠”和“损”的角度）,17,Leech礼貌原则的六个次准则（从“惠”和“损”的角度）,18,2.Leechsapproachtopoliteness,Politenessincommunicationrequirespeopletoadoptstrategiesof(a)maximize(otherthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofpolitebeliefs;(b)minimize(otherthingbeingequal)theexpressionofimpolitebeliefs.,19,Leech:MAXIMSOFPOLITENESS,(i)Tactmaxim(策略准则,得体准则)(a)Minimizecosttoother;使他人受损最小Cloudyougivemeasheetofpaper?(b)maximizebenefittoother;使他人受惠最大Youcanusemycarwheneveryouneedit?,20,April20DearMike,Howareyou?IvegottwoticketstoaconcertgivenbyafamouspopbandforhisFridayevening.Guesswhichband?ItsBeyond!Iknowyouhavelongbeenafanoftheband.SoIguessyouwouldcertainlyliketocomewithme.Bytheway,theconcertwillstartatsixp.m.andlasttwohours.Givemeacallwhenyoureceivethisnote.Affectionatelyyours,Kate,Intheletterthewritermaximizesthebenefittoothers(tactmaxim).使他人受惠最大,21,Leech:MAXIMSOFPOLITENESS,(ii)Generositymaxim(宽宏准则，慷慨准则)(a)Minimizethebenefittoself;使自身受益最小MayIjusthavealook?(b)maximizethecosttoself;使自身受损最大Iwillmakeeveryefforttodothejobwell.,22,A:Oh,mybagissoheavy!B:Doyouneedanyhelp?C:Letmehelpyou.maximizethecosttoself使自身受损最大,Generositymaxim(宽宏准则，慷慨准则),23,MAXIMSOFPOLITENESS,(iii)Approbation(orflattery)maxim赞扬准则(a)Minimizedispraiseofothers;尽量缩小对他人的贬损Youcloudbeabitmorecareful.(b)Maximizepraiseofothers.尽量夸大对他人的赞扬Whatamarvelousmealyoucooked!,24,A：今天的饭菜怎么样？B：这样说吧，你太太是世界上最好的厨师。（实际上饭菜一般）在这个会话中，B违反了合作原则中的质量准则，但遵守了礼貌原则中的赞扬原则。Maximizepraiseofothers.尽量夸大对他人的赞扬,25,Wife:Gosh,Ivebeensocareless.Husband1:Yes,haventyou?Husband2:Well,werehumans.ApprobationMaximMinimizedispraiseofother尽量少贬低别人,26,A:Whatdoyouthinkofmyshoes?B1:Theyarehorrible.B2:Well,itis,ur,notmyfavorite.ApprobationMaximMinimizedispraiseofother尽量少贬低别人,27,ModestyMaxim(谦逊原则）,a.Minimizepraiseofself少赞誉自己b.Maximizedispraiseofself多贬低自己,e.g.1.Pleaseacceptthissmallgiftofmine.,贬低自己的礼物。,2.欢迎观临寒舍,28,2,家里有客人的时候，女儿很自觉的去洗碗了。客人：你家小倩真懂事。母亲：哪有哪有，她平时很懒的，做事马虎，学习又差，真让人不省心。不像你家的小玲，每次考试都第一。客人：靠运气啦。,29,2020/5/19,古代人的称呼的谦逊,令尊-家父令堂-家母令郎-犬子令千金-犬女令夫人-贱内,30,2020/5/19,谦逊原则的作用,“夫礼者，自卑而尊人。”贬损自己，也是对他人的尊敬。满招损，谦受益。,31,2020/5/19,AgreementMaxim（一致原则）,a.minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother尽量减少双方之间的分歧b.maximizeagreementbetweenselfandother尽量增加双方的一致,作用：减少双方的不同之处，满足对方的要求，赞同对方，使两人的关系更和谐，以使对话的进行。,32,2020/5/19,forexample,1.A:Youlooknicetoday.B:Thankyou.2.A:你今天真漂亮。B:难道我以前很丑吗？C:.,33,2020/5/19,A:Yourwifeisverybeautiful.B:Where,where.A:Theeyesarebeautiful,thenoseisbeautiful,themouthisbeautiful.,Q:WhichmaximdoesAorBobeys?,Chinese:modestymaximforeigner:Agreementmaxim,34,2020/5/19,SympaphyMaxim(同情原则）,a.Minimizeantipaphybetweenselfandother减少对别人的厌恶感b.maximizesympaphybetweenselfandother增加对别人的同情感,35,2020/5/19,A:你脸色不大好，是不是不舒服呀？B:是呀，感冒了，头晕眼花流鼻涕.A:那看医生了没.要注意休息，多喝点水.C:什么？真感冒了，被我猜中了吧，哈哈哈.,多关心别人，为别人着想，不要把自己的快乐建立在别人的痛苦之上，更不要落井下石。,36,2020/5/19,sixmaximofLeechsPolitnessPrinciple,1.TactMaxim2.GenerosityMaxim3.ApprobationMaxim4.ModestyMaxim5.AgreementMaxim6.SympathyMaxim,利益分配,评价,对待他人的态度,37,2020/5/19,Politenesstendstofavorotherthanself.,a-sub-maximismoreimportantthanb-sub-maxim.Theavoidanceofdiscordismoreneedthanthecreationonconcord.减少双方的不一致比想办法增加双方的一致更常用。,38,2020/5/19,linguisticcommunicationgoals:,39,2020/5/19,illocutionarygoals,40,2020/5/19,conpetitivefunction（竞争功能）convivialfunction（促谐功能）collaboratefunction（协作功能）conflictivefunction（冲突功能）,41,2020/5/19,Conpetitivefunctions（竞争功能）,Theillocutionarygoalcompeteswiththesocialgoalorderingdemandingbegging,42,2020/5/19,LadyCatherine:MrCollins,youcantsitnexttoyourwife.Move.Overthere.,43,2020/5/19,LadyCatherine:Come.MissBennit,andplayforus.ElizabethBennet:No,Ibegyou.LadyCatherine:Formusicismydelight.,44,2020/5/19,Convivialfunctions(促谐功能),Theillocutionarygoalcoincideswiththesocialgoalofferinginvitingthankinggreetingcongraturating,45,2020/5/19,Darcy:Mysister,MissGeorgiana.Georgiana:Mybrotherhastoldmesomuchaboutyou.Ifeelasifwearefriendsalready.Elizabeth:Thankyou.Whatabeautifulpianoforte!Georgiana:Mybrothergaveittome.,46,2020/5/19,Collaborativefunctions(协作功能),Theillocutionarygoalisindifferenttothesocialgoalassertingreportingannouncinginstructing,47,2020/5/19,Elizebeth:Ifeverymandoesnotendtheeveninginlovewithyou,thenImnojudgeofbeauty.Jane:Ormen.,48,2020/5/19,Conflictivefunctions(冲突功能),Theillocutionarygoalconflictswiththesocialgoalaccusingcursingthreateningreprimanding,49,2020/5/19,LadyCatherine:Youselfishgril!Thisunionhasbeenplannedsincetheirinfancy.Doyouthinkitcanbepreventedbyawomanofinferiorbirth?,50,2020/5/19,51,2020/5/19,Clashesandtradeoffsbetweenthemaxims,52,Sometimes,theadherencetoonemaximofthePPmayruncountertothatofanother.Mary:Whatanicejumperyourewearing!John1:Oh,itsaveryoldone.John2:Yes,itsbeautiful,isntit?,53,张：你今晚就在我们家吃顿便饭吧。陈：不了，不了，太麻烦了。张：麻烦什么？随便几个菜，很快的。陈：我还是回去吧，反正也还不饿。以后再来打扰你们。张：哎呀，都在这儿了。反正我们也要吃的，就随便吃点吧。陈：那-那-，我就不客气了。,54,WhenmaximsoftheCPandthePPcomeintoconflict,thelattergenerallygainsmoreconcideration,ConflicsmayalsoarisebetweenacertainmaximofthePolitenessPrincipleandonemaximoftheCooperativePrinciple.,55,A:WellallmissBillandJack,wontwe?B:Well,wellallmissBill.A:.Johnhasjustborrowedyourbike.B；Well,Ilikethat.A:Howdoyoulikemypainting?B:Idonthaveaneyeforbeauty,Imafraid.,恪守了礼貌原则的一致准则，违反了合作原则中的量准则。,恪守了礼貌原则的慷慨准则，违反了合作原则中的质准则。,恪守了礼貌原则的一致准则，违反了合作原则中的关系准则。,56,Peter:Youdidagoodjob.Mike;Thankyou!外国客人：你的工作做得很好。中国服务员：不，我的工作还有许多不足。,Differentculturesmayprioritizedifferentmaximinthisregard.,57,有人对一位学习好的孩子的父母说：“你的孩子好争气呀！”对于这样的夸奖，孩子的父母则回答：“哪里，一般般吧。”完后，还嘱咐孩子：“别骄傲！谦虚使人进步，骄傲使人落后。”在同样的情况下，英美父母则会自豪地回答：“是的，他很棒！他是我们的骄傲！”,58,PP：areformulation,GrandStrategyofPoliteness(GSP):Inordertobepolite,SexpressesorimpliesmeaningswhichassociateahighvaluewithwhatpertainstoO(O=otherperson(s),mainlytheaddressee)orassociatealowvaluewithwhatpertainstoS（S=self,speaker).,GSPassuper-maximorsuper-constrain,59,2,Sub-constrains(asopposedtomaxims)withvariableconstrainingpower,E:PlaceahighvalueonOsfeelings;PlacealowvalueonSsfeelings,A:PlaceahighvalueonOswants;placealowvalueonSswants,B:PlaceahighvalueonOsqualitiesplacealowvalueonSsqualities,C:PlaceahighvalueonSsobligationtoO;PlacealowvalueonOsobligationtoS,D:PlaceahighvalueonOsopinions;PlacealowonSsopinions,60,2020/5/19,eg:Youmustcomeandstaywithusnexttime.Iwonttake“no”forananswer!你下次一定来啊。不准说不啊！Comeon!Sitdownandhaveanicecupofcoffee.来，来，来，喝杯茶！,A:PlaceahighvalueonOswants(generosity);placealowvalueonSswants(tact),Noyoudont!Illpayforthis.Iinsist.别，别，别，这回我买单！别和我抢！,61,2020/5/19,eg:Theyaresodelicious!Yourcuisineisasgoodasthatofachefatanybigrestaurant!,B：PlaceahighvalueonOsqualities(approbation);placealowvalueonSsqualities(modesty),A:Imsodumb.Icantbelieveithastakenmesolongtofigureoutsuchasimplequestion!B:Comeon!Ifyouweredumb,therewouldntexistanysmartguyintheworld!,62,2020/5/19,Eg:Im(terribly)sorry.Pleaseexcuseme.ImafraidIllhavetoleaveearly.,C:PlaceahighvalueonSsobligationtoO;PlacealowvalueonOsobligationtoS,63,2020/5/19,D:PlaceahighvalueonOsopinions(agreement);PlacealowonSsopinions,eg:A:Itsabeautifulview,isntit?B:Yeah,absolutelygorgeous.,64,2020/5/19,E:PlaceahighvalueonOsfeelings(sympathy);PlacealowvalueonSsfeelings,eg:Warmestcongratulations!IwassoterriblysorrytohearaboutA:Hi,howareyou?B:Oh,fine.Actuallythough,65,2020/5/19,TheseconstrainsabovearesimplythemostimportantmanifestationsoftheGSPandtheremaybeothers.Moreover,heconstrainstowardstheendofthelistarelesspowerfulthanthoseatthethoseatthetop.,66,2020/5/19,Question:ThePolitenessPrincipleisusefulinexplainingmanypragmaticphenomenaliketheindirectnessofspeech,theasymmetry（不对等）ofpoliteness,battlesforpoliteness,andsoon.Inaddition,itcanbeinvokedtointerpretsomeellipticalconstructions(省略结构).Comparethefollowingutterances.a.(Good)luck!b.Badluck!,67,2020/5/19,(1)a.Iwishyougoodluck!b.Itisreallybadluckforme!(2)Whenpeopleexpresssomething,theytendtoplaceahighvalueonothersandplacealowvalueonthemselves.Therefore,whenthespeakersaysluckorgoodluck,heisalmostlikelyexpressingagoodwishtoothersandwhenhesaysbadluck,heisexpressinghisdisappointmentorsadness.,68,2020/5/19,Positivepoliteness,Negativepoliteness,VS,69,2020/5/19,Positivepolitenessstrategiesseektominimizethethreattothehearerspositiveface.Theyareusedtomakethehearerfeelgoodabouthimself,hisinterestsorpossessions,andaremostusuallyusedinsituationswheretheaudienceknowseachotherfairlywell.,Positivepoliteness,70,2020/5/19,Inadditiontohedgingandattemptstoavoidconflict,somestrategiesofpositivepolitenessincludestatementsoffriendship,solidarity,compliments,andthefollowingexamplesfromBrownandLevinson:,AttendtoHsinterests,needs,wants,Youlooksad.CanIdoanything?,Usesolidarityin-groupidentitymarkers,Hey,mate,canyoulendmeadollar?,71,2020/5/19,Includebothspeaker(S)andhearer(H)inactivity,Ifwehelpeachother,Iguess,wellbothsinkorswiminthiscourse.,Offerorpromise,Ifyouwashthedishes,Illvacuumthefloor.,Illjustcomealong,ifyoudontmind.,Beoptimistic,72,2020/5/19,ExaggerateinterestinHandhisinterests,Wow,thatsawhopper!,Joke,Yes,itsratherlong;notshortcertainly.,AvoidDisagreement,Thatsanicehaircutyougot;wheredidyougetit?,73,2020/5/19,Negativepolitenessstrategiesareorientedtowardsthehearersnegativefaceandemphasizeavoidanceofimpositiononthehearer.Thesestrategiespresumethatthespeakerwillbeimposingonthelistenerandthereisahigherpotentialforawkwardnessorembarrassmentthaninbaldonrecordstrategiesandpositivepolitenessstrategies.,Negativepoliteness,74,2020/5/19,Usehedges(避免正面回答)orquestions,Negativefaceisthedesiretoremainautonomoussothespeakerismoreapttoincludeanoutforthelistener,throughdistancingstyleslikeapologies.ExamplesfromBrownandLevinsoninclude:,Beindirect,WouldyouknowwhereOxfordStreetis?,Perhaps,hemighthavetakenit,maybe.Couldyoupleasepasstherice?,75,2020/5/19,Minimizetheimposition,Bepessimistic,Youcouldntfindyourwaytolendingmeathousanddollars,couldyou?,Itsnottoomuchoutofyourway,justacoupleofblocks.,SoIsupposesomehelpisoutofthequestion（不可能）,then?,76,2020/5/19,Usepluralpronouns,Ihopeoffensewillnotbetaken.Visitorssigntheledger.Spittingwillnotbetolerated.,Useobviatingstructures,likenominalizations,passives,orstatementsofgeneralrules,Apologize,Imsorry;itsalottoask,butcanyoulendmeathousanddollars?,Weregrettoinformyou.,77,2020/5/19,Question:Leechdrawsadistinctionbetweenpos-politenessandneg-politeness,theformerentailsanintentiontoincreasetheestimationinwhichtheotherpersonisheld,whereasthelatterinvolvesmitigatingorlesseningthedegreetowhichSsgoalsareimposedonH.Giveoneexampleofeach.,Pos-politeness:A:Wealllikeyourpaintings.,Neg-politeness:A:WouldyoutellmewhereOxfordStreetis?,78,2020/5/19,Question:WhichofthepositiveandnegativeformofthePPismoreimportantorimposestighterconstraintontheuseofpolitenessinconversation?Why?,Thenegativepoliteness.Mostofourdailyspeechactsarepotentialthreatstoournegativeface.,Toomuchpositivepolitenessmaysoundlikeflattery.,79,2020/5/19,absolutepolitenessscale（outofcontext）,relativepolitenessscale（inagivensociety,foragivengroup,orforagivensituaton）,twoscales,80,Absolutepolitenessscale绝对礼貌等级,e.g.a.Helpme.b.Canyouhelpme?c.Couldyouhelpme?,politeness,81,Absolutepolitenessscale,undirectional单向性的degree:1.thelexico-grammaticalform词汇语法形式2.semanticmeaning,82,Relativepolitenessscale相对礼貌等级,e.g.Couldipossiblyinterrupt?,sensitivetocontextandbidirsctional双向性的,whom？,83,Relativepolitenessscaleappropriatedegree得体程度,1、theverticaldistance垂直距离(status,power,role,age,etc.),2、thehorizontaldistance水平距离(intimate,familiar,acquaintance,stranger,etc.),3、theweightorvalueofthebenefit,thecost,thefavor,theobligation,etc,4、thestrengthofsocially-definedrightsandobligations,andthedelimitationofself-territoryandother-territory,84,fivekindsofscalesrelevanttopoliteness,1.thecostbenefitscale损益成度等级2.optionalityscale可选范围3.theindirectness间接性4.authoritysca