Language-Testing-and-EvaluationPPT课件

.,1,LanguageTestingandEvaluation,.,2,IntroductiontoLanguageTesting,Testingisanindispensablepartofeveryteachingandlearningexperience.Rightfromthecommencementofformaleducation,weareconfrontedwithamyriadoftests,fromsmallquizzes,mid-termandfinalexaminations,torigidmatriculationexaminations,nottomentionmanyothertestsafterourgraduation,onthegradesofwhichhangdecisionsconcerningourcareer.Asamatteroffact,wearehauntedbyteststhroughoutourlifetime.,.,3,Whatisa“test”?Apsychologicaloreducationaltestisaproceduredesignedtoelicitcertainbehaviorfromwhichonecanmakeinferenceaboutcertaincharacteristicsofanindividual.(Carroll)考试是由一定数量的题目组成，用于测定人的某一心理品质，或学习掌握程度的工具。教师出试题实际上是创设一个语言情景，学生的答题过程则是他的语言能力和知识掌握程度的一种表现。考试的目的就是要测定学生在某一方面的能力或学习情况。（舒运祥2001）,.,4,AssessmentToputitsimply,assessmentmeanstodiscoverwhatthelearnersknowandcandoatacertainstageofthelearningprocess.Withdifferentassessmentpurposesinmind,wemayadoptdifferentassessmentmethods.Aclosestudyontheassessmentpurposeswillmakeitclearthatallthepeopleinvolvedineducationhavesomereasonstoconsiderassessmentnecessary.Theyareadministrators,teachers,parentsandstudents.,.,5,Administrators:Administratorsprovidemoneyandpersonnelforeducation.Theyneedtoknowwhethertheprogrammestheyhaveplannedareworkingwell。Theonlywaytodothisistodiscoverhowwellthepupilsaredoingwiththeircourses.Ifassessmentresultsaredifferentfromwhattheyhaveexpected,theyneedtoreplantheprogrammessothatbetteraccomplishmentcanbeachievedlater.,.,6,Teachers:Teachersputtheadministratorsplansintopractice.Inthecontinuumoflearning,teachersneedtoknowwhathasbeendoneandwhatneedstobedonenext;whatthepupilsalreadyknoworcandoandwhattheydonotknoworcannotdoyet.Iftheprogramiswellplanned,itprettymuchdependsontheteachersperformancewhethertheprogrameventuallyleadstosuccess.,.,7,Parents:Nobodyismoreanxiousthanparentstoknowhowtheirchildrenaredoinginschool.Unabletowatchtheirkidsintheclass,parentsvaluethefeedbackabouttheirchildrensperformancefromtheteachersandtheschool.Students:Finally,studentsneedtoknowwhattheyveaccomplished,beawareofwhattheyneedtoworkontext,andbuilduptheirconfidenceandsatisfactionfromwhattheyhaveachieved.,.,8,Reasonsfortest/assessmentuse:ToknowpeopleslanguageabilityTodiscoverhowsuccessfulstudentshavebeeninachievingtheobjectiveofacourseofstudyToprovidefeedbackforlearnersToevaluatetheeffectivenessofteachingTodiagnosestudentsstrengthsandweaknessesToplacestudentsinanappropriateprogram,.,9,语言能力、兴趣、态度等,考试,观察,面谈,数值,价值,判断,测量,标准,（量化）,评价过程,考试、测量和评价三者之间既有联系又有区别。评价过程实际上包含了测量，如果测量以考试为手段，那么评价中也包含了考试。外语教学中为了了解学生的语言能力、兴趣、知识掌握得情况，就要对其进行评价，但能力、兴趣等心理品质是一个抽象概念，为了有利于评价，我们通过具体做题目（考试）等方式，对抽象的概念进行定性、定量的描述，最后还需借助一定的标准解释考试成绩，以确定学生的语言水平，这样一个过程就是评价。,Test-Measurement-evaluation(Assessment),.,10,外语测试,语言学,心理学与教学法,理论语言学,应用语言学,心理语言学,社会语言学,学习心理学,外语教学法,测量学,教育统计学,教育测量学,计算机科学,外语测试与有关学科,.,11,TeachingandTestingTestingandteachingarecloselyinterrelated.Languagetestingbothservesandisservedbyresearchinlanguagelearningandlanguageteaching.Theeffectoftestingonteachingandlearningisknownasbackwash.Backwashcanbeharmfulorbeneficial.Well-madetestsofEnglishcanbringaboutbeneficialbackwashwhileill-designedoneswillleadtomisguidedteachingandlearning.Goodtestscanhelpcreatepositiveattitudetowardslearning.Goodtestscanhelpfosterpositiveclassroomatmosphereandhelpthemmasterthelanguage.,.,12,TeachingObjectivesTeachingContentTeachingMethodsTesting,.,13,Notalltests,however,aresufficienttomeetourrequirement,i.e.,toprovideanaccuratemeasurementofthecandidateslanguageproficiencyfortheirspecificuses.Moreoftenthannot,acandidatesperformanceonalanguagetestdoesnotmatchhisperformanceinrealuse.Ifblindfaithisplacedinthetestresultregardlessofthevalidityandreliabilityofthetestforaspecificsituation,itwillgiverisetosevereproblems.Whenthetestscoreisregardedastheonlyyardstickofapersonslanguageproficiency,studentswilltendtostudytesttakingskillsratherthanthelanguageitself.Theybecomefiendsattestinsteadofmastersofthelanguage.Thenweareboundtofallintotheexamination-centeredteaching,whichshouldbeavoided.Clearly,thisisundesirable.,Teachingcontents,TeachingMethods,Testing,.,14,KindsofTestsandTestingTestscanbecategorizedfollowingdifferentcriteria,suchastheintendeduseofthetest,theapproachtotesting,testingcontent,thewaytointerpretthescoreandscoringmethods.First,testsareusedtoobtaininformation.“Givingatestislikeaskingaquestionitisarequestforinformation.Ifyouasktherightsortofquestion,yougettherightsortofanswer.Ifyouaskasillyquestion,yougetasillyanswer.”Inthiswaytheycanbecategorizedintoproficiencytests,achievementtests,diagnostictests,placementtestsandaptitudetests.,.,15,Proficiencytests(水平测试)ProficiencytestsaredesignedtomeasurepeoplesoverallmasteryofEnglishortomeasurehowsuitablecandidateswillbeforperformingacertaintaskorfollowaspecificcourse.(TOEFL,EPT,NMETetc.)Forexample,doesthestudentknowenoughEnglishtofollowacertainuniversitylecturegiveninthemediumofEnglish?DoesthestudentknowenoughEnglishinordertofunctionefficientlyinaparticulartypeofemployment?Thecontentofaproficiencytestisnotbasedonthecontentorobjectivesoflanguagecourseswhichpeopletakingthetestmayhavefollowed.Itisinnowayrelatedtoanysyllabusorteachingprogram;indeed,manyproficiencytestsareintendedforstudentsfromseveraldifferentschools,countriesandevenlanguagebackgrounds.,.,16,Achievementtests（成绩测试）Achievementtestsaredirectlyrelatedtolanguagecourses,theirpurposebeingtoestablishhowsuccessfulindividualstudents,groupsofstudents,orthecoursesthemselveshavebeeninachievingobjectives.Theyareoftwokinds:finalachievementtestsandprogressachievementtests.Finalachievementtestsareusuallyformalexaminations,givenattheendofacoursestudyorattheendoftheschoolyear.Oftenittakestheformofanexternaltestwhichissetbyofficialexaminingboards,ministriesofeducation,orbymembersofteachinginstitutions.Progressachievementtestsareintendedtomeasuretheprogressthatstudentsaremaking.Theyareusuallydesignedbyteacherstochecktheextenttowhichthestudentshavemasteredthematerialtaughtintheclassroom.Beingthemostwidelyusedtypesoftests,progresstestsareusuallyaneffectiveteachingdevicetomotivatelearningandreinforcewhathasbeentaught.,.,17,Diagnostictests（诊断测试）Diagnostictestsareusedtoidentifystudentsstrengthsandweaknesses.Theyareintendedprimarilytoascertainwhatfurtherteachingisnecessary.Inourteaching,wemaysometimesbetemptedtoconcentrateonfollowingthesyllabusandignoretheneedsofourstudents.However,ifwedothis,alotofourstudentsmayfail,howeverthoroughlywehavecoveredthesyllabus.Itisveryimportanttotakeintoaccounttheneedsofourstudentsateverystageinourteaching.Justasitisnecessaryfordoctorstodiagnoseanillnessinordertocuretheirpatients,soteachersmustdiagnoseproblemsinordertoteacheffectively.Veryfewtestsareconstructedforpurelydiagnosticpurposes.Usuallyadiagnostictestformspartofanothertypeoftest,especiallyaclassroomprogresstest.Achievementandproficiencytestsarealsofrequentlyusedfordiagnosticpurposes:areasofdifficultyarediagnosedinsuchtestssothatappropriateremedialactioncanbetakenlater.,.,18,Placementtests（摸底测试）Placementtestsareintendedtoprovideinformationwhichwillhelptoplacestudentsatthestage(orinthepart)oftheteachingprogrammostappropriatetotheirabilities.Typicallytheyareusedtoassignstudentstoclassesatdifferentlevels.PlacementtestsareusuallygeneralandconcentrateontestingawideandrepresentativerangeofabilityinEnglishinordertolookforwardtothelanguagedemandswhichwillbemadeonstudentsduringthecourse.,.,19,AptitudeTests（学能测试）AptitudeTestisdesignedtopredictastudentslikelihoodofsuccessandeaseinlearningaforeignlanguage.Languagelearningaptitudedoesnotrefertowhetherornotanindividualcanorcannotlearnaforeignlanguage(itisassumedthatvirtuallyeveryonecanlearnaforeignlanguagegivenadequateopportunity).Languagelearningaptitudereferstothe“predictionofhowwell,relativetootherindividuals,anindividualcanlearnaforeignlanguageinagivenamountoftimeandundergivenconditions.”.,.,20,例如：本子在盒子上。Pasyhojtzov.盒子在桌子上。Pasydeupthoj.椅子在桌子下。Pasydeupfgrip.笔在盒子里。Pasyhojcmak.书在椅子下。Pasygripftjav.1.书在桌子上。A.Pasydeupttjav.B.PasydeupftjavC.Pasygripfdeupt.D.Pasytjavtgrip.2.笔在本子下。A.Pasyhojtmak.B.Pasyzovtmak.C.Pasyzovfmak.D.Pasyhojfmak.3.本子在盒子里。A.Pasyhojczov.B.Pasyhojctjav.C.Pasyhojtzov.D.Pasyhojttjav.,.,21,HistoryofTestingModernlanguagetestinghasahistoryofabout100years.Broadlyspeaking,thedevelopmentoftestingcanbedividedintothreestages:thepre-scientificstage,thescientificstageandthecommunicativestage.,.,22,ThePre-scientificStageThenineteenthcenturyandtheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury:basically“intuitive,orsubjective”,dependingonthepersonalinclinationoflanguageteachers;Studentsevaluatedinavarietyofways,notonlyonskillsinusingthelanguagebutalsoonfactsaboutEnglish.Languageknowledgeoftentakingupheavyweighting.studentshadtolabelpartsofasentenceandmemorizenumerouslistsoflanguagepatterns.Abundantwritinginvariousformsincludingtranslation,essay,dictation,precis,andopen-endedanswersbasedonreadingcomprehension.Westillseesomeofthesetestingformsinuseandtheyturnouttobequitesoundforadvancedstudents.,.,23,TheScientificStageSubjectivetestsinthepre-scientificstageattackedforlackofreliability.astrongneedforteststhatwouldbeobjectiveandfairer.Testingspecialistswithlinguistictrainingenteredthescene.Languagetheoriessuggestedthatlanguagecouldbebrokenintosub-skillsandcomponentsandcouldbeevaluated“scientifically”bitbybit.Objectivetestsweredevisedthatmeasuredperformanceorrecognitionofseparatesounds,specificgrammaticalfeatures,orvocabularyitems.SubjectivewrittentestsbegantobereplacedbyobjectivetestsAnswersbeingstandardized,scoredevenbyuntrainedpeople.Specialistsstartedtoevaluatetestsstatistically,lookingattheeffectivenessofeachquestionandmeasuringtheexaminationsreliabilityandvalidity.,.,24,TheCommunicativeStageTeststodaymainlyconcernedwithevaluatingrealcommunication.abroaderviewoflanguageability.Notonlymeasurelanguageskillsbutalsocommunicativecompetence.Thebestexams:combinevarioussub-skillsTomeasuremorethanisolatedlanguageskills:howwellapersoncouldfunctioninhissecondlanguage.TousethebestfeaturesofsubjectiveandobjectivetestingTheclozetestreflectsthiscompromise:Fromastoryoressay,wordsareremovedatregularintervals.Afterconsideringthecontext,theexamineehastofillinthemissingwords.Thus,thetaskisholisticthatis,grammarandvocabularyandoverallmeaningaretestedsimultaneously.Butthescoringisquiteobjective.,.,25,Inresponsetothesebroaderviewsofcommunicativelanguageabilityandcommunicativelanguageuse,mucheffortisbeingdirectedtowarddevelopingtests“thatnotonlymeasureawiderangeoflanguageabilities,includinggrammatical,discourse,sociolinguistic,andstrategiccompetencies,butthatarealsoauthentic,inthattheyrequiretesttakerstointeractwithandprocessboththeexplicitlinguisticinformationandtheimplicitillocutionaryorfunctionalmeaningofthetestmaterial”,.,26,CharacteristicsofDiscretepointtests(分离式测试),Integrativetests（综合性测试）andCommunicativetests（交际性测试）,.,27,StructuralisttestingapproachCorrespondingtothetraditionalviewonthenatureoflanguageandlanguagelearning,conventionaltestsadoptthestructuralistapproachtotesting.“Whatistobetestedisrevealedbyastructuralcontrastiveanalysisbetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearnersmothertongue”(Morrow).Basedonthecontrastiveanalysescarriedoutatallthelevelsofstructure(grammatical,syntactic,phonological),testitemsareconstructed.Thesameapproachisadoptedastohowtotest.Languageisbrokendownintoseparateelementsanddiscreteitemsareconstructed,eachofwhichideallyrevealsthetesttakersmasteryofonelevelofthelanguageintermsofoneofthefourskills:listening,speaking,readingandwriting.,.,28,Norm-referencedConventionaltestsrelyonquantitativeassessment.Followingthebehavioristviewoflanguagelearningthroughhabitformation,testsposequestionstoelicitresponseswhichshowwhetherornotcorrecthabitshavebeenestablished.Correctanswersarerewardedandnegativeonespenalizedinsomeway.Passingatestinvolvesmakingaspecifiedproportionofcorrectresponses.Consequently,scoresofconventionalteststendtorevealsimplythequantityofitemsansweredcorrectly.Nothingcanbeinferredaboutthequalityofthetesttakerslanguageperformance.,.,29,分离式测试的理论基础：1、结构主义语言学：教学内容可被分解成语音、词法和句法、词汇等方面，语言能力可分解为听说读写等方面。2、行为主义学习论：复杂的学习行为可分解为最基本的单元：刺激反应（SR）的联结。新行为主义代表斯金纳提出“刺激反应强化”。3、听说教学法：听说领先；反复实践形成习惯；以句型为中心，排斥或限制母语；对比语言结构，确定教学难点；及时纠正错误，培养正确的语言习惯和广泛利用现代化教学手段。,.,30,分离式测试的特点和问题：1、个人的语言技能发展是不平衡的，语言测试可以从听说读写四个方面分别进行。2、语言是有结构并按层次构成的，测试可按层次由低到高进行。如对听能的测试可分为：1）音素（元音、辅音、语调、重音等；2）词汇；3）句子；4）小段对话或短文等。3、语言情景是无限的，语言成分是有限的，测试成分更有效。4、母语和外语在相互转换时，其形式、结构和意义等方面由一定的不同之处，也是测试重点。5、试题采用只有一个正确答案的题型，以保证客观性与科学性。6、评分采用客观打分，任何人阅卷结果都一致。,.,31,分离式测试以行为主义学习理论、结构主义语言学和听说教学法的理论为依据分别对考生的语音、词汇、语法等语言知识和听说过读写等方面的语言技能进行测试，题量大，每题的测试目标明确，有助于教师了解学生在学习中的长处和不足，测试数据能量化分析，打开科学测试的一页。它的最大弱点是重语言形式而轻语言应用。把现实中的语言分解成无上下文的单句，其测试结果很难反映学生实际应用语言能力。正是由于这些弱点，使综合测试和交际性测试应运而生。,.,32,Hesgoingtocallusback,_?A.wontheB.didntheC.doesntheD.isnthe-Didntyougooutyesterday?-_.A.Yes,IdidntB.Yes,IdidC.No,IdidD.No,Iwentout,.,33,IntegrativetestingIntegrativetesting,bycontrast,requiresthecandidatetocombinemanylanguageelementsinthecompletionofatask.Thismightinvolvewritingacomposition,makingnoteswhilelisteningtoalecture,takingadictation,orcompletingaclozepassage.,.,34,综合性测试的理论基础：1、“语用期待语法假设”：美国语言学家奥勒（JohnW.Oller,jr）认为交际过程中，语境对于确定语音或词义有着至关重要的作用。正常的语言使用过程中存在两种语境：语言自身语境(linguisticcontext)和语言外语境(extralinguisticcontext)。言语和体势语构成语言自身语境（语言知识）；语言外的现实世界构成语言外语境。语境中语言加工能力为“语用期待语法（规则）”。奥勒认为一个人的语言能力是由这样一个期待语法生成系统(expectancygeneratingsystem)构成的。完型填空和听写是最有效的语用测试形式。,.,35,e.g.1.-Hellen,willyoubeatthepartytonight?-Yes,butIhavesomuchhomeworktodothatIreally_.A.cantB.mustntC.wontD.shouldnt2.-Wasitthere_youwereawaytoanswerthephone?-Theresnodoubtaboutit.A.thatB.whichC.whileD.where(context:A:Whatareyoulookingfor?B:Oh,mygod.Icantfindmywalletanywhere.IputitjustherebeforeIwentintoanswerthephone.A:Wasittherewhileyouawaytoanswerthephone?B:Thereisnodoubtaboutit.),.,36,Lookatthefollowingdialogue:1.A:Canyoutellmethetime?B:Well,themilkmanhasjustcome.2.A:Thereisthetelephone.B:Iaminthebath.A:OK.3.A:Whatarethepolicedoing?B:Ivejustarrived.4.A:CanIbuyyouadrink?B:Actually,Idratherhavethemoney.5.A:IthinkIcouldmakeyouveryhappy.B:Why?Areyouleaving?,.,37,2、格式塔心理学：强调感知的整体性，认为整体不等于部分之和，整体是先于部分而存在，并制约着部分的性质和意义。,.,38,综合性测试特点：综合性测试也称语用测试（pragmatictest），其测试方法正好与分离式相反。综合性测试将人的语言能力视为一个整体，每次对考生的多种能力的多个方面同时进行测试。这类考试始终在语境中测试学生使用语言的能力，因此结果更接近于考生实际使用语言能力。以完型和听写为主要形式的综合性测试仍属间接测试，无法直接测出考生的语言表达能力，需与其它测试结合使用，才能取得满意效果。,.,39,ThecommunicativetestingThecommunicativeapproachtolanguagetestingissometimeslinkedtotheintegrativeapproach.However,althoughbothapproachesemphasizetheimportanceofthemeaningofutteranceratherthantheirformandstructure,thereareneverthelessfundamentaldifferencesbetweenthetwoapproaches.Communicativetestsareconcernedprimarily(ifnottotally)withhowlanguageisusedincommunication.Successisjudgedintermsoftheeffectivenessofthecommunicationratherthanformallinguisticaccuracy.Inpractice,however,sometestsofacommunicativenatureincludethetestingofusageandalsoassessabilitytohandletheformalpatternsofthetargetlanguage.Indeed,fewsupportersofthecommunicativeapproachwouldarguethatcommunicativecompetencecouldeverbeachievedwithoutaconsiderablemasteryofthegrammarofalanguage.,.,40,交际性测试的理论依据是社会语言学和交际法（也称意念功能法）。以社会语言学为理论基础的交际教学法提出以语言功能项目为纲、以培养交际能力为本的教学法。海姆斯（D.H.hymes）认为，交际能力应体现在四个方面即：形式正确、合理可行、内容得体、实际使用。语言使用时应遵循“得体法则”(ruleofappropriateness),因此交际能力强的人的语言应该语法正确、符合人的感知特点、内容得体、语言表达的是人们生活中真实的文化行为。分离式和综合测试无法测定真实语言交际能力。,.,41,交际性测试的特点：是行为测试，在真实或接近于真实情景中，通过完成任务来测试语言掌握程度。因此又称“基于任务的”（task-basedtests）考试。如：考生听一段录音后写一份电传回电。将听与写结合起来。虽然有其优点，但考试材料、语境和任务的真实性仍然有争议。同时作为主观测试，评分的客观性问题阻碍它在大规模考试中的应用。但目前，有人将多项选择题引入到交际测试。如：,.,42,Youwereapplyingtoauniversityandneededaletterofrecommendation.Youwenttoaprofessor,whowasalsoyourfriend,andsaid:A.“Idappreciateitifyoucouldwritealetterofrecommendationforme.”B.“Iwanttoaskyoutowritealetterofrecommendationforme”C.“Iwonderifyoucouldwritealetterrecommendationme.”D.“Hey,givemerecommendationletter.”,正确，得2分,语法正确，不够得体，得1分,较得体，语言有误，得1分,语言有误，内容不得体，不得分,.,43,ContrastofCommunicativeandTraditionalApproacheswithTesting:1.Whatislanguage?C:asystemforcommunicatingmeaning.T:asystemofknowledge2.Whatislanguagelearning?C:learntocommunicatebyusingT:learngrammarrulesandstructures3.pedagogicconcerns.C:communicativecompetence,meaning/contentT:linguisticcompetence,form,.,44,4.Pedagogictechniques:C:analytic;top-down;roughly-tunedinput;interactionT:synthetic;bottom-up;finely-tunedinput;transmission5.Affective:C:Learner-centered(initiator,performer,problem-solver)T:Teacher-centered(controller,knowledge-imparter,assessor)6.testing:C:Integrative;Holistic;Criterion-referenced;Production;Communicativecompetence;Function;UseRawdata;SurfacestructureT:Analytical;Discretepoint;Norm-referenced;Reception;Linguisticcompetence;Form;Usage;Idealization;Deepstructure,.,45,Norm-referencedtestingNorm-referenced(NR)testsaredesignedtoenablethetestusertomake“normative”interpretationsoftestresults.Thatis,testresultsareinterpretedwithreferencetotheperformanceofagivengroup,ornorm.Soastudentsperformanceiscomparedwiththeperformancesoftheotherstudentsinthesamegroup.Forexample,isthestudentinthetoporinthebottompartofthegrouporinthemiddleofthegroup?Howmanystudentsinthegrouparebetterthanthestudentandhowmanyareworse?Theperformancecharacteristics,ornorms,mosttypicallyusedasreferencepointsaretheaveragescoreofthegroup.,.,46,Criterion-referencedtestingCriterion-referenced(CR)testsaredesignedtoenablethetestusertointerpretatestscorewithreferencetoacriterionlevelofabilityordomainofcontent.Anexamplewouldbethecaseinwhichstudentsareevaluatedintermsoftheirrelativedegreeofmasteryofcoursecontent,ratherthanwithrespecttotheirrelativerankingintheclass.Thus,allstudentswhomasterthecoursecontentmightreceivean“A”,irrespectiveofhowmanystudentsachievethisgrade.Inotherwords,weuseCRteststofindoutwhetherastudentcanperformaparticulartaskornot.Forexample,canthestudentwritealetteraskingforinformationaboutsomething?,.,47,常模参照考试（Norm-referencedtests）主要用于甄别、分类、选拔等，例如编班考试、外语竞赛、中考和高考等。标准参照考试(criterion-referencedtests)常用于各类证书考试，如高中会考，期末考试、大学四、六级等。,.,48,QualitiesofTestsToevaluateatest,wemustinthefirstplacebeclearofthebasicqualitiesthatmakeatestuseful.(BachmanandPalmer)Testusefuln