Chapter-6-Culture-and-Nonverbal-Communication.ppt

2020/5/23,1,Chapter6CultureandNonverbalCommunication.,6.ITheBasicsofNonverbalCommunication,2020/5/23,2,6.1.1Definitionofnon-verbalcommunication,Itreferstocommunicationthroughawholevarietyofdifferenttypesofsignalcomeintoplay,includingthewaywemove,thegesturesweemploy,thepostureweadopt,thefacialexpressionwewear,thedirectionofourgaze,totheextenttowhichwetouchandthedistancewestandfromeachother.（非语言交际是不用言词表达的、为社会所公知的人的属性或行为，这些属性或行为由发出者有目的地发出，由接受者有意识地接受并有可能进行反馈。）,Whatismeantbynonverbalcommunication?,Nonwordmessages,suchasgestures,facialexpressions,interpersonaldistance,touch,eyecontact,smell,andsilence.,2020/5/23,4,6.1.2TheImportanceofNonverbalCommunication,Nonverbalcommunicationhasreceivedmuchattentionintheareasofbusinesspresentation,salesandmarketing,andthedevelopmentofsocialskills.Itisestimatedthatlessthantenpercentofinterpersonalcommunicationinvolveswords,theremainderbeingmadeupofvoicetone,soundsandavarietyofdevicessuchaskinetics(movement),haptics(touch),oculesics(eye-contact),proxemics(space)andchronomics(time)aswellasposture,soundsymbolsandsilence,whicheitherreplaceoraccompanywords.,2020/5/23,5,Itisoftenassumedthatnonverbalcommunicationisatransferableskill.However,therearetwomajorproblematicfactors:firstlythat,likespeech,ithasbothformandfunction,and,secondly,thatitisnotalwaysdirectlytranslatable.Itisthefirstofthesefactorswhichmakesnonverbalcommunicationdifficulttoteach,andthesecondwhichleadstobreakdownsandmisunderstandingsininterculturalcommunication.,2020/5/23,6,Gestures,expressionsandallotherformsofnonverbalcommunicationhavefunctions,which,aswithlanguage,needtobetaughtalongwiththeirforms.Inthesamewayaslanguageitems,someparalinguisticexpressionshaveseveralfunctions,whilenonverbalcommunicationingeneralperformsthethreebasicfunctionsofmanagingidentity,definingrelationships,andconveyingattitudesandfeelings(butnotideas):,2020/5/23,7,Misunderstandingsoccurbecausethefunctionsofparalinguisticformsvaryfromculturetoculture,althoughtherearesomeuniversalnon-verbalssuchassmiles,laughterandsomeexpressions.Therearealsodifferencesaccordingtogenderandage.Nonverbalcommunicationtendstoberelativelyambiguousandopentointerpretationwhileitsinfluenceoftendependsonthenatureofthelistener,particularlywhenitisunclearwhetherthemessagesconveyedaredeliberateorunconscious.Nonverbalindicatorsaremostcommoninpolychroniccultures,inwhichanindividualoftenperformsseveraltaskssimultaneously.,2020/5/23,8,Nonverbalandverbalcommunicationarenormallyinseparable,which,forexample,iswhyitmayseemsodifficulttousethetelephoneinaforeignlanguage.Itneedstobetaughtandpractisedsituationally,intherightcontexts,andwithplentyofculturalinputandawareness.,2020/5/23,9,4.1.3Functionsofnon-verbalcommunicationTherearesixfunctionsofnon-verbal(P219-221)communication:Repeating(重复)Complementing(补充)Contradicting(否定)Substitutingorreplacing(代替)Accenting(强调)Regulating(调节),2020/5/23,10,Repeating(重复)Peopleoftenusenonverbalmessagestorepeatapointtheyaretryingtomake.Wemightholdupourhandinthegesturethatsignifiesapersontostopatthesametimeweactuallyusethewordstop.Orwemightpointinacertaindirectionafterwehavejustsaid,Thenewlibraryissouthofthatbuilding.Thegesturesandwordshaveasimilarmeaningandreinforceoneanother.,2020/5/23,11,Complementing(补充)Closelyrelatedtorepeatingiscomplementing.Althoughmessagesthatrepeatcanstandalone,complementinggenerallyaddsmoreinformationtomessages.Forexample,IcantellsomeonethatIampleasedwithhisperformance,butthismessagetakesonextrameaningifIpatthepersonontheshoulderatthesametime.Physicalcontactplacesanotherlayerofmeaningonwhatisbeingsaid.Youcanseehowanapologybecomesmoreforcefulifyourface,aswellasyourwords,issaying,Imsorry.,2020/5/23,12,Contradicting(否定)Onsomeoccasions,ournonverbalactionssendsignalsoppositefromtheliteralmeaningscontainedinourverbalmessages.Youtellsomeoneyouarerelaxedandatease,yetyourvoicequaversandyourhandsshake.Italsoisacontradictorymessagewhenyouinformyourpartnerthatyouaregladtoseehimorher,butatthesametimeyouaresulking愠怒andbreakingeyecontact.Becausepeoplerelymostlyonnonverbalmessageswhentheyreceiveconflictingdata,weneedtobeawareofthedangersinherentinsendingopposingmessages.,2020/5/23,13,Substitutingreplacing(代替)Weusesubstitutioninnonverbalcommunicationwhenweperformsomeactioninsteadofspeaking.Ifyouseeaveryspecialfriend,youareapttoenlargethesizeofyoursmileandthrowopenyourarmstogreethim,whichisasubstituteforallthewordsitwouldtaketoconveythesamefeeling.Ifagroupofpeopleisboisterous，喧闹的,youmightplaceyourindexfingertoyourlipsasanalternativetosaying,PleasecalmdownsothatIcanspeak.,2020/5/23,14,Nonverbalmessagesmaysubstituteverbalonesincertainsettings.Therearesituationsinwhichwordscannotbeused.Inaverynoisystreet,forexample,policeofficermightusehandgesturestoreplacespokenmessages.,2020/5/23,15,Accenting(强调)Loudnessandtoneofvoicecanbeexampleshere.Youcanaccentyourangerbyspeakinginavoicethatismuchlouderthantheoneyouuseinnormalconversation.,2020/5/23,16,Regulating(调节)Weoftenregulateandmanagecommunicationbyusingsomeformofnonverbalbehavior:wenodourheadinagreementtoindicatetoourcommunicationpartnerthatweagreeandthatheorsheshouldcontinuetalking;orweremainsilentforamomentandletthesilencesendthemessagethatwearereadytobeginourspeech.Orwehavedirecteyecontactwithsomeonetolethimorherknowthechannelsareopen.Inshort,ournonverbalbehaviorhelpsuscontrolthesituation.,2020/5/23,17,2020/5/23,18,6.2ClassificationsofNon-verbalCommunication,6.2.1BodyMovement(p192-199)Gesture(p192-193)EyeContact(p194-196)FacialExpressionSmileandlaugh(p196-197)Touch(p198-199)6.2.2ParalanguageSilentlanguage,2020/5/23,19,Classificationofnonverbalcommunication.,2020/5/23,20,6.2.1BodyMovement,Kinesics,BodyLanguage(体态语):基本姿态（姿势和身势）、基本礼节动作（如握手、亲吻和拥抱、微笑、体触、女士优先的礼节动作等）以及人体各部分动作（如头部动作、面部动作、目光交流、臂部动作、手部动作、腿部动作等）所提供的交际信息,2020/5/23,21,Peoplehavealwaysknownthatactioncommunicates.AsBenjaminFranklinsaid,Nonepreachesbetterthantheant,andshesaysnothing.Thestudyofhowmovementcommunicatesiscalledkinesics.Ingeneral,kinesiccuesarethosevisiblebodyshiftsandmovementsthatcansendmessagesabout(1)ourattitudetowardtheotherpersonorleaningforwardmayshowthatwearerelaxed),(2)ouremotionalstate(tappingonthetableorplayingwithcoinscanmeanwearenervous),and(3)ourdesiretocontrolourenvironment.,2020/5/23,22,Ourpurposeissimplytocallyourattentiontotheideathatwhileallpeopleusemovementtocommunicate,cultureteachesushowtouseandinterpretthesemovements.Intheupcomingsections,welookatafewculturaldifferencesinposture,sittingbehavior,andmovementsofthebodythatconveyspecificmeanings(gestures).Beforewebegin,wemustpointoutthatinmostinstancesthemessagesthebodygeneratesoperateonlyincombinationwithothermessages.Weusuallysmileandsayhellotoafriendatthesametime.,2020/5/23,23,Gestures,Thousandsofcross-culturalexamplesprovethatmessagesandmeaningsshiftfromculturetoculture.AnArabicspecialistoncecataloged247separategesturesthatArabsusewhilespeaking.,2020/5/23,24,Gestureshelptoemphasizeapoint,ortocommunicatesomethingthatshouldnotbearticulatedoutloud.Sincegestureshavedifferentmeaningsindifferentpartsoftheworld,theycanalsocauseconfusion.Thefollowingareexamplesofcommongestureswhichhavedifferentfunctionsandmeaningsindifferentcultures:,2020/5/23,25,The“Ring”or“OK”gesturehasdifferentmeaningindifferentcountries.IntheUSAandinEnglishspeakingcountries,theringorOKgesturemeans“EverythingisOK”.InFranceitcanalsomeanzero,nothingorworthless.InIndonesia,theringgesturemeanszero.InJapanitcanmeanmoney,InRussiaitmeansrudenessInbrazilitmeanssomethingvulgarinTunisia(突尼斯)Illkillyou!,2020/5/23,26,WhatmaytheO.K.signmean?(p200,4),InBrazila.rudenessInRussiab.moneyInFrancec.somethingvulgarInJapand.somethingworthless,2020/5/23,27,Thethumb-uphasbeenwidelyrecognizedasapositivesignalmeaning“everythingisO.K.”or“goodgoing.”AlthoughwellknowninNorthAmericaandmostofEurope,inAustraliaandWestAfricaitisseenasarudegesture.InGreece,itsmainmeaningis“getstuffedoraninsult.InItaly,whenpeoplecountfromonetofive,theyusethethumbtomean“one”andtheindexfingerbecomes“two”.InAustralia,America,EnglandandIndonesia,peoplecount“one”ontheindexfingerandtwoonthemiddlefinger,hence,thethumbwillbenumberfive.,2020/5/23,28,TheVsignforvictorygesture,holdingtwofingersupright,withpalmandfingersfacedoutward,iswidelyusedintheU.S.andmanyothercountries.InEngland,however,itisacrudeconnotationwhenusedwiththepalmtowardsthespeaker.InIndonesia,whetherthepalmfacestowardsthespeakerorthepalmfacesout,theVsignmeansnumbertwo.,2020/5/23,29,Beckon(招手)InUSA,beckoningpeopletocomewiththepalmupiscommonoracceptable.However,inthePhilippines,Korea,andpartsofLatinAmericaaswellasothercountriesthesamegestureisconsideredrude.Insomecountries,onlyananimalwhichcanbebeckonedwiththepalmup.InIndonesia,whenwewanttobeckonsomeoneweextendonearminfrontofusand,withthepalmdown,wavetothepersontocome.WiththesinglefingerbeckoninIndonesiaandAustraliaforprostitutes,2020/5/23,30,OnTopThepersonwhograspsyourhandwiththeirpalmdownfeelsconfident,superiorandistryingtodominateyou.Two-handerPeoplewhograspyourhandwithbothoftheirswantyoutothinktheyarehonestandtrustworthy.InChina,whenofferingoraccepting,bothhandsareusedtoshowrespect,2020/5/23,31,Scratchingtheheadcanmeananumberofthingsuncertainty,forgetfulnessorlying.Itdependsontheothergesturesorthesituationsthathappenatthesametime.Ifthestudentscratcheshisheadwhenheanswersthequestiongivenbytheteacher,scratchingtheheadcanmeanthatheforgetsorheisnotsureabouttheanswer.,2020/5/23,32,EyeContact,Differentcultureshavedifferentrulesforwhatisconsideredappropriateeyecontact.IndealingwithstrangerstheruleforBritishsocietyisthatyoushouldlookatthembutyoushouldntlookatthemforalongtime.IfyoudontlookataBritishpersonwhileyourespeakingtohim/her,he/shemighthaveanegativeimpressionofyou.Inaconversation,turntakingcanbesignaledbytheeyemovementsofthespeakers.Thereareculturesthatvaluelookingsomestraightintheeyenomatterwhothatpersonis,andtherearecultureswhichconsideritdisrespectfulforachildtomeettheeyeofanadult.,2020/5/23,33,Thenumberofmessageswecansendwithoureyesisalmostlimitless.Wehaveallheardsomeofthefollowingwordsusedtodescribeapersonseyes:direct,expressive,intelligent,penetrating敏锐的,sad,cheerful,worldlyhard,trusting,suspicious.,2020/5/23,34,AccordingtoLeathers,thereisampleevidencetoconcludethatintheUnitedStates,eyesservesiximportantcommunicationfunctions:they(1)indicatedegreesofattentiveness,interest,andarousal激励;(2)influenceattitudechangeandpersuasion;(3)regulateinteraction;(4)communicateemotions;(5)definepowerandstatusrelationships;and(6)assumeacentralroleinimpressionmanagement.,2020/5/23,35,Moststudies,aswellasourpersonalobservations,tellusthatculturemodifiestheamountofeyecontactinwhichweengageandwhoistherecipientoftheeyecontact.PeopleinWesternsocietiesexpectthepersonwithwhomtheyareinteractingtolookthemintheeye.Thereisevenatendencytobesuspiciousofsomeonewhodoesnotfollowtheculturallyprescribedrulesforeyecontact.,2020/5/23,36,Directeye-to-eyecontactisnotacustomthroughouttheworld.InJapan,forexample,prolongedeyecontactisconsideredrude,threatening,anddisrespectful.ProblemscanarisewhenWesternersattempttodobusinesswithagroupofpeoplewhobelieveitisasignofimpolitenesstomakeprolongedeyecontactwiththeircommunicationpartners.,2020/5/23,37,Therealsoaregendervariationsinhowpeopleusetheireyestocommunicate.Asummaryoftheresearchonthesubjectindicatesthatinmostinstances,womenmaintainmoreeyecontactthandomen;womenlookatotherwomenmoreandholdeyecontactlongerwithoneanotherthanmendo.,2020/5/23,38,TheresLanguageinHerEyeEyecontacthasimportantrulesconcernedwithwhentolook/howlong/who/whonottolookat,etc.Whensittingfacetofacewithastranger,usualresponseistobehavefriendly/naturally,glancingattheotherperson,exchangingsmalltalkorremainingsilent.TolookatsomebodywhilelisteningisasignofshowingrespectinChina.Whenspeakinginpublic,tolookatyouraudiencefrequentlyisthenormalpractice.,2020/5/23,39,TherulesforeyecontactamongtheBritish:Avoidstaringbutatthesametimeavoidignoringthemwhenpassingstrangersinthestreet.(lookuntil8feet,veeraway/turn,changeaway)-theclosertheproximity(nearness)thegreaterthetendencytoavoideyecontact.Communicatingwithoneanother,Britishpracticedemands(expects)eyecontact,thoughnothavetobeconstant.Notlookingcouldimplyfear,contempt,uneasiness,guiltorindifference,etc.Inaddressinganaudience,aBritishlecturershouldlookathisaudiencenowandthen.,2020/5/23,40,Ingeneral,Indonesianmakeslesseyecontactwithstrangersinbigcitiesthaninsmalltowns.InIndonesiansmalltown,itusualfortwostrangerswalkingeachothertomakeeyecontact,smileandperhapssay“Hi!”,“GoodMorning”oreven“Whereareyougoing”.,2020/5/23,41,FacialExpressions,Atonetime,mostofushavebeenintriguedbyhowthelooksonotherpeoplesfaceshaveinfluencedourreactionstothem.Theimportanceoffacialexpressionsincommunicationiswellestablished;however,theinterculturalimplicationsoftheseexpressionsaredifficulttoassess.Atthecoreofalingeringacademicdebateliesthisquestion:Isthereanearlyuniversallanguageoffacialexpressions?,2020/5/23,42,Onepositionholdsthatanatomicallysimilarexpressionsmayoccurineveryone,butthemeaningspeopleattachtothemdifferfromculturetoculture.Themajorityopinionisthatthereareuniversalfacialexpressionsforwhichpeoplehavesimilarmeanings.Bothpositionsagreethatculturalnormsoftendictatehow,when,andtowhomfacialexpressionsaredisplayed.,2020/5/23,43,Therearesixbasicemotions:surprise,fear,disgust,anger,happiness,andsadness.Theresnoarttofindthemindsconstructionintheface,yettryingtofindthemindsconstructioninthefaceofthosewearedealingwithissomethingwedoeveryday.Peoplemayhidetheirtreacherousintentionsandlookliketheinnocentflower,butbetheserpentunderit.Fortacticalreasonswemaywishtodonthemask,tohidewhatwefeel.Menarelearningtohidetheiremotionstoagreaterextentthanwomen.,2020/5/23,44,Cry,Laugh,Happy,Angry,2020/5/23,45,InmanyMediterraneancultures,peopleexaggeratesignsofgrieforsadness.Itisnotuncommoninthisregionoftheworldtoseemencryinginpublic.YetintheUnitedStates,whitemalessuppressthedesiretoshowtheseemotions.Japanesemenevengosofarastohideexpressionsofanger,sorrow,ordisgustbylaughingorsmiling.,2020/5/23,46,TheChinesealsodonotreadilyshowemotionforreasonsthatarerooteddeeplyintheirculture-theChineseconceptofsavingfacebeingoneofthemostimportant.FortheChinese,displayingtoomuchemotionviolatesface-savingnormsbydisruptingharmonyandcausingconflict.,2020/5/23,47,Thesmileandlaugh,Thesmileisyetanotheremotionaldisplaythatisrootedinonesculture.Thewholeworldsmiles,buttheamountofsmiling,thestimulusthatproducesthesmile,andevenwhatthesmileiscommunicatingoftenshiftfromculturetoculture.InKoreanculture,toomuchsmilingisoftenperceivedasthesignofashallowperson.Thais,ontheotherhand,smilemuchofthetime.Infact,ThailandhasbeencalledtheLandofSmiles.Evenwithinaculture,therearegroupsthatusefacialexpressionsdifferentlyfromthedominantculture.,2020/5/23,48,Smilesandlaughter,InaChineseclassroomagirlwasaskedtoansweraquestion.Shestoodupandsmiled,withoutmakinganysound.WhenanAmericanisparkinghisbicycleandbicycleaccidentallyfallsover,hefeelsembarrassedathisawkwardness,andisquiteangeredandhumiliatedwhenChineseonlookerslaugh.Japanesemengosofarastohideanger,sorrowordisgustbylaughingorsmiling.,2020/5/23,49,Thenormswhichgovernemotionsvarybetweensocieties.OneexampleisthatdisplayingangerismuchlessacceptableamongtheJapanesethanamongAmericans.ThereisgreateremphasisonrestrainingtheexpressionofemotionsinJapaneseculture,andpeopletendtocontroltheirfeelings,especiallynegativeones.,2020/5/23,50,Withinsocietiestherearealsodifferencesbetweengroupsintermsofdifferencesintheextenttowhichemotionsareexpressed.InBritainmenareexpectedtocontroltheiremotionswhilewomenareexpectedtoexpresstheiremotionsmorefreely.Menbegintocontroltheiremotionswhentheyarechildren.,2020/5/23,51,Touch(Haptics),Justasourwordsandmovementsaremessagesaboutwhatwearethinkingandfeeling,sotouch,too,conveysthese.Themeaningsweassigntobeingtouched,andourreasonsfortouchingothers,helpusgaininsightintothecommunicationencounter.,InterculturalBusinessCommunication,3rded.,Chaneywhenusedimproperly,touchmaycauseannoyanceandbetraytrust.HierarchyisaconsiderationwhenusingtouchintheU.S.:peoplewhoareolderorhigherrankedmaytouchthosewhoareyoungeroroflowerrank;equalsmaytoucheachother.,InterculturalBusinessCommunication,3rded.,ChaneyinJapaneseitwouldbeinterpretedasacceptance.,2020/5/23,61,SilenceisnotameaningfulpartofthelifeofmostmembersofthedominantcultureintheUnitedStates.Talking,watchingtelevision,listeningtomusic,andothersound-producingactivitieskeepusfromsilence.Wearenotaloneinouravoidanceofsilence.InJewish,Italian,andArabcultures,whichstresssocialinteractionamongfriendsandfamily,thereisoftenverylittlesilence.ThereisevenaJewishsayingthatnotes,Oneshouldnotbealone,eveninheaven.InGreekculture,thereisalsoabeliefthatbeinginthecompanyofotherpeopleisasignofgoodlife.,2020/5/23,62,Therearenoreferencestoconceptsofsolitudeandsilence;rather,historyandliteraturearerepletewithallusionstorhetoricanddialogues.AculturethatpraisesAristotle,Plato,andSocratesisnotonethatwillfindsilentmeditationveryappealing.Thisisinsharpcontrastwithculturesinwhichahushedandstillenvironmentistherule.Wenowlookatafewculturalvariationsintheuseofsilencesothatyoumightbetterunderstandhowalackofwordscaninfluencetheoutcomeofanycommunicationevent.,2020/5/23,63,IntheEasterntradition,theviewofsilenceismuchdifferentfromtheWesternview.Easternersdonotfeeluncomfortablewiththeabsenceofnoiseortalkandarenotcompelledtofilleverypausewhentheyarearoundotherpeople.Infact,thereisoftenabeliefamongmanyEasterntraditionsthatwordscancontaminateanexperienceandthatinnerpeaceandwisdomcomeonlythroughsilence.,2020/5/23,64,BarnlundsaysofBuddhism:Oneofitstenetsisthatwordsaredeceptiveandsilentintuitionisatruerwaytoconfronttheworld;mind-to-mindcommunicationthroughwordsislessreliablethanheart-to-heartcommunicationthroughanintuitivegraspofthings.Further,Buddhismteachesthatwhatisrealis,andwhenitisspokenitbecomesunreal.,2020/5/23,65,ThinkforamomentaboutthesewordsofConfucius:Believenototherstales,Otherswillleadtheefarastray.ManyJapan