An Introduction to Linguistics.语言学介绍

1,AnIntroductiontoLinguistics,2,AnIntroductiontoLinguistics,_ByHelen.H2004.10,3,CourseDescription,TheAimsoftheCourseAre:1.Tohelpyoutohaveabetterunderstandingofthenatureandfeaturesoflanguageandlinguisticstudies;2.Tohelpyoutohaveabetterunderstandingofthenotions,principlesandapproachesinlinguisticstudies;3.Toenableyoutounderstandtherelationsbetweenlanguageandotherrelevantfactorssuchassociety,cultureandthought:4.Toenableyoutodoyourownresearchinlinguisticstudies.II.TheContentoftheCourseAccordingtheaimsofthecourse,thefollowingtopicswillbeincludedinthecourse:1.LanguageandLinguistics2.speechsounds3.lexicon4.fromwordtotext,4,CourseDescription,5.meaning6.languageandcognition7.language,cultureandsoceity8.languageinuse语言学论坛：语音学光标：山东语言学网：语言学学术网站：/语言学网站精选：中国教育和科研计算机网：语言学博克：,5,ReferenceBooks,戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社胡壮麟，(2001)，语言学教程，北京大学出版社刘润清，(1995)，西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版社Aronoff,M.et.al.TheHandbookofLinguistics外语教学与研究出版社，2001Beaugrande,R.D.LinguisticTheory:TheDiscourseofFundamentalWorks.外语教学与研究出版社，2001Bloomfield,L.Language.外语教学与研究出版社，2001Bolinger,Dwight.LanguageTheLoadedWeapon:TheUseandAbuseofLanguageToday.London:Longman,1980.Chomsky,Noam.LanguageandMind.Enlargeded.NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1972.Chomsky,Noam.KnowledgeofLanguage:ItsNature,Origin,andUse.NewYorkandLondon:Praeger,1986Poole,S.AnIntroductiontoLinguistics.外语教学与研究出版社，2000Radford,A.et.el.Linguistics:AnIntroduction.外语教学与研究出版社，2001Robins,R.H.GeneralLinguisticsFourthedition.外语教学与研究出版社，2000Sassure,F.D.CourseinGeneralLinguistics.外语教学与研究出版社，2001Spair,E.Language:AnIntroductiontotheStudyofSpeech.外语教学与研究出版社，2001Yule,G.TheStudyofLanguageSecondedition.外语教学与研究出版社，2002,6,7,Chapter1.Linguistics,8,1.1WhatsLinguistics?,1.1.1DefinitionLinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.1.1.2Aimsoflinguistictheory:AccordingtoChomsky(2001),linguiststrytoanswerthefollowingthreequestions:,9,1)Whatistheknowledgeoflanguage?(competence)2)Howistheknowledgeoflanguageacquired?(acquisition)3)Howistheknowledgeoflanguageputtouse?(performance/languageprocessing),10,Grammarasrepresentationoflinguisticknowledge,H.G.Widdowson(1996):Humanlanguageischaracterizedasrule-governmentcreativity.Speakersofalanguagepossessamentalsystemofelementsandrulesthatallowsthemtoformandinterpretfamiliarandnovelutterances/sentences.Thissystemiscalledgrammar,whichgovernsthearticulation,perception,andpatterningofspeechsounds,theformationofwordsandsentencesandtheinterpretationofutterances.Theexistenceofsuchlinguisticsystemsinhumansistheproductofanatomicalandcognitivespecialization.Hence,linguisticsisacognitivescience.,11,TheLogicalProblemofLanguageAcquisition,Howcomesitthathumanbeings,whosecontactswiththeworldarebriefandpersonalandlimited,areneverthelessabletoknowasmuchaswedoknow?Andifnot,whatmustweknowotherwisethanthroughthesenses?BertrandRussell(1872-1970),12,TheInnatenessHypothesis,NoamChomsky:Whatweknowaboutourlanguageisnotinfactlearnedformtheinput,butisratherpartofaninnateendowment,whichiscalledUniversalGrammar(UG).But,lookattheexample:Isthatyourcar?Howshe?-acoupleofpillswillcurehim.,13,1.1.3thescopeoflinguisticsmainbranchesoflinguistics:phonetics:thestudyofspeechsounds;Phonology:thestudyofsoundsystemandtheorganizations;Morphology:thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords;therulesofwordformation;Syntax:thestudyoftherulesofsentenceformation;Semantic:examinehowmeaningisencodedinalanguage;studythesystemofmeanings;Pragmatic:thestudyofmeaningincontext;,14,Chapter1Linguistics,macro-linguisticspsycholinguistics:thestudyoftherelationbetweenpsychologyandlinguistics;sociolinguistics:thestudyofsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsociety;appliedlinguistics:applicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestosolvethepracticalproblems;linguisticsandlanguageteachingStylistics:linguisticandliteraturecognitivelinguistics;computationallinguistics;(e.g.machinetranslation)Neurolinguistics,15,16,1.1.3Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics,prescriptivevs.descriptiveprescriptive:setrulesofcorrectnessforlearnerstofollow,prescribingwhatoughttobesaidorhowthingsoughttobe;descriptive:describeandanalyzewhatpeopleactuallyuse;Discussion:Do/dontsaylikethis.-howthingsshouldbe.Peopledo/dontsaylikethis.-howthingsare.Ex.1)Idonthavenone.(theuseofdoublenegationconstruction)2)Mathildeisfatterthanme.“Thereareobviousadministrativeandeducativeadvantages,inthemodernworld,instandardizingtheprincipledialectthatsemployedwithinaparticularcountryorregion.”(Lyons,1982:53),17,Chapter1Linguistics,synchronicvs.diachronicThedistinctionbetweensynchronicanddiachronicstudyoflanguageisoneofthemostimportantcontributionofSaussure.synchroniclinguistics:thestudyofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory;alsocalledstaticlinguistics;diachroniclinguistics:thestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory;alsocalledevolutionaryorhistoricallinguistics;Observation:Analysis:1)withoutsynchronicstudies,therecanbenodiachronicstudies;Synchronicdescriptionsarepriortodiachronicdescriptions;2)therelationsbetweensynchroniclinguisticphenomenaarenotlikethosebetweendiachroniclinguisticphenomena.3)asalanguageuser,itssufficienttoknowthestateoflanguageathistime.Seminar:commentonSaussuresdistinctionofdiachroniclinguisticsfromsynchroniclinguistics.,18,Chapter1Linguistics,langueandparoleItwasFerdinanddeSaussure,thepioneerofstructurallinguisticsasanautonomousscience,whocalledlanguageasocialfact.ForSaussure,itisreasonablyclearthatLangueexistsasasocialobject.Langueis:“bothasocialproductofthefacultyofspeechandacollectionofnecessaryconventionsthathavebeenadoptedbyasocialbodytopermitindividualstoexercisethatfaculty.”langue:abstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.conventional;abstract;relativelystableandsystematicalParole:instancesoftheuseoflanguage;therealizationoflangueconcrete,specifictothesituationinwhichisoccurs;naturallyoccurringeventsubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints,19,Chapter1Linguistics,Saussuresaid:“Inseparatinglanguefromparole,weareseparatingwhatssocialfromwhatsindividualandwhatsessentialfromwhatsancillaryoraccidental.”Langueunderliesparole;paroleisnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation;Whatthelinguisthastodoistoabstractlanguefromparole.FromSaussure,theobjectoflinguisticstudyisstressedontheregularityorunderlyinglinguisticsystem.,20,Chapter1Linguistics,CompetenceandperformanceFollowingSaussure,Chomsky(1965)petence:idealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Notbook-learningknowledge;butthegrammaticalrulesinternalizedbythechildsubconsciouslinguisticknowledgeNolevels:allnativespeakersaresaidtopossessthesamegeneralunderstandingoflinguisticstructuresandtorecognizewhatsgrammaticalorungrammatical.performance:thespecificuseoftheknowledgeunderproperconditions;theactualizationoftheknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Twoaspectsofbehaviorconcerningwithperformance:“Shespeaksindistinctively.”-usageoflanguage“Shespeakspersuasively.”-useoflanguageEx.Thisisapen.Therearelevelsofperformance:poorly;adequately;perfectly,21,Chapter1Linguistics,22,Chapter1Linguistics,RelationbetweencompetenceandperformanceAspeakerscompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Aspeakersperformancedoesntalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.AllthenativespeakersaresaidtopossessthesamegeneralunderstandingoflinguisticstructuresDistinctionbetweenlangueandcompetenceChomskysconceptoflinguisticperformanceissimilartoSaussuresconceptofparole,whilehisuseoflinguisticcompetenceissomewhatdifferentfromSaussureslangue.,23,Langue/competence,24,1.2Whatslanguage,Languagecanmeanwhatapersonsays(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)thewayofspeakingorwriting(e.g.Shakespeareslanguage,Luxunslanguage)aparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting(e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)theabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunity(e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage)thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages(e.g.Hestudieslanguage)atoolforhumancommunication(socialfunction)asetofrules(rule-governed),25,1.2.1Definitionoflanguage,Sapirsdefinition(1921)“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”Language:AnIntroductiontotheStudyofSpeech(1921),26,Hallsdefinition(1968),Languageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”,27,Chomskysdefinition(1957),“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof(finiteorinfinite)sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”SyntacticStructures(1957),28,“Alanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsbymeansofwhichasocialgroupco-operates.”-BernardBloch(1907-1965)cantbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.,33,2)Languageisarbitrary,arbitrary-nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.,34,3)Languageissymbolicinnature,Symbolic-wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasbyconvention.,Julietsays:“Whatsinaname?Thatwhichwecallarosebyanyothernamecouldsmellassweet.”,35,Chapter1Linguistics,Seminar:Nowthatlanguageisarbitrary,canwenameanobjectatwill?-“Thereisgloryforyou!”-“Idontknowwhatyoumeanbyglory”Alicesaid.-“OfcourseyoudonttillItellyou.Imeantthereisanice,knockdownargumentforyou!”-“Butglorydoesntmeananiceknockdownargument”,Aliceobjected.-“WhenIuseaword,”HumptyDumptysaid,inratherascornfultone,”itmeansjustwhatIchooseittomean_neithermorenorless.”-“Thequestionis,“saidAlice,“whetheryoucanmakewordsmeansomanydifferentthings.”(LewisCarrell,Throughthelooking-Glass),36,Chapter1Linguistics,Becauseofarbitrariness,learningalanguageiscreativepotentially;becauseofconventionality,languagelearningislaborious.,37,4)Languageisprimarilyvocal,3)vocal-theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.2majormediaoflanguage:speech/writingA.Childrenacquirespokenlanguagebeforetheycanreadorwrite;B.spokenlanguagecamelongbeforewrittenforms,38,5)Languageishuman-specific,4)humanspecific-differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.Thegiftoflanguageisthesinglehumantraitthatmarksusallgenetically,settingusapartfromtherestoflife.LewisThomas,theLivesofaCellWhenwestudylanguage,weareapproachingwhatsomemightcallthe“humanessence”,thedistinctivequalitiesofmindthatare,asfarasweknow,uniquetoman.Chomsky,Languageeventhosearedifferentamonglanguages.acrowofarooster:cock-a-doodle-doo(inEnglish)kukkokoekuu(inFinnish)gege(inChinese)C.compoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopyD.interjections:ouch(inEnglish)aie(inFrench),44,Chapter1Linguistics,2)arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevelLanguageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevelHecameinandsatdown.Hesatdownandcamein.Hesatdownafterhecamein.dualityLanguageisdual.Itisasystemoftwostructures:Systemofsounds:asetofdiscrete,distinctivesounds;meaninglessinthemselves;basiclevel;lowerrank;secondaryunitsSystemofmeaning:soundssequencesintermsofdiscretesoundsthatconstitutetocarrymeaning;meaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,words,etc);higherrank;primaryunits,45,Chapter1Linguistics,Alowerrankofdiscretesoundsbeinggroupedorregroupedintoahigherrankofmeaningfulsoundsequences(word),andthenbuildinguplargerlinguisticchunks,suchaswordgroups,phrases,clauses,sentences,paragraphs,sections,chapters,etc.kAt_lowerlevelcattackact_higherlevelSeminar:Doesanimalcommunicationsystemhaveduality?why?Dotrafficlightshaveduality?Why,46,Conclusion:Theadvantageofdualityoflanguagemakesitpossiblethathumancanmakeinfinitesentencesusingfinitewordsandthousandsofwordsoutofasmallsetofsounds(around48inthecaseoftheEnglishlanguage).Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.,47,Productivity/Creativity-languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityandrecursiveness.duality-toforminfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard;recursiveness-atheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.1)toproducenewsentencesneverspokenbeforeandtounderstandsentencesneverheardbefore;2)tocreatepossiblesentencesviafinitenumberofwords;Conclusion:Creativityisauniversalpropertyofhumanlanguage.Languagecanneverbeexhausted.,48,Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires,49,eg.DanielBoonedecidedtobecomeapioneerbecausehedreamedofpigeon-toedgiraffesandcross-eyedelephantsdancinginpinkskirtsandgreenberetsonthewind-sweptplainsofthemid-west.,50,Chapter1Linguistics,Ex.ThisisthehouseThisisthehousethatjackbuilt.Thisisthemaltthatlayinthehousethatjackbuilt.Thisisthedaythatworriedthecatthatkilledtheratthatatethemaltthatlayinthehousethatjackbuilt.Creativityisauniversalpropertyofhumanlanguage.Languagecanneverbeexhausted.,51,Chapter1Linguistics,displacement-languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharenotpresent,readorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfutureorinfar-awayplaces.DogsbarkingBeesdancingLanguageisnotcloselytiedtotheimmediatesituation.,52,Chapter1Linguistics,culturaltransmissionLanguageisnottransmittedgeneticallyfromgenerationtogeneration,butthedetailsoflinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Genetically_bynatureCulturally_bynurture,53,Examples:Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.,54,1.3Originsoflanguage,Thegenesisoflanguageisnottobesoughtintheprosaic,butinthepoeticsideoflife;thesourceofspeechisnotgloomyseriousness,butmerryplayandyouthfulhilarityinprimitivespeechIhearthelaughingcriesofexultationwhenladsandlassiesviedwithoneanothertoattracttheattentionoftheothersex,wheneverybodysanghismerriestanddancedhisbravesttolureapairofeyestothrowadmiringglancesinhisdirection.Languagewasborninthecourtingdaysofmankind.OttoJespersen(1921),Humanlanguageoriginatedwhilehumanswereactuallyenjoyingthemselves,55,1.3.1Thedivinesource,Inmanyreligions,thereappearstobeadivinesourcewhoprovideshumanswithlanguage.“InthebeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWordwasGod.”(Gospel,John1:1)GodcreatedAdamand“whatsoeverAdamcalledeverylivingcreature,thatwasthenamethereof.”(Genesis,2:19),56,InHindutradition,languagecamefromthegoddessSarasvati,wifeofBrahma,creatoroftheuniverse.AnEgyptianpharaohnamedPsammetichustriedtheexperimentwithtwonewborninfantsoftheoriginalGod-givenlanguagearound600BC.,57,1.3.2thenatural-soundsource,Three“naturalsound”proposals:1)bow-wowtheoryPrimitivesoundscouldhavebeenimitationsofthenaturalsoundswhichearlymenandwomenheardaroundthem.Thisiscalled“bow-wowtheory”oflanguageorigin.Onomatopoeicwords(echoingnaturalsounds)seemtobeaconvenientevidenceforthistheory.Buttheyareverydifferentinthedegreeofresemblancetheyexpresswiththenaturalsounds.Thistheorylackssupportiveevidence.,58,2)The“pooh-pooh”theory,Originalsoundsoflanguagecameformnaturalcriesofemotion,suchaspain,angerandjoy.Whatmakesthetheoryproblematicisthatthereisonlyalimitednumberofinterjectionsinalmostalllanguages.Besides,interjectionssuchasOh,Ah,Oops,wow,arenotactuallyutteredviatheconsonantsandvowelsweuseintryingtowritethemdown,sobearlittlerelationshipwiththesoundsystemofalanguageandthereforearenotgoodevidence.,59,3)The“yo-heave-ho”theory,Thesoundsofapersoninvolvedinphysicaleffortcouldbethesourceofourlanguage,espwhenthatphysicaleffortinvolvedseveralpeopleandhadtobecoordinated.Theearlyhumansworkedtogether,andproducedsomeasetofgrunts,groansandswearwordswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.Humansoundsproducedmayhavehadsomeprincipledusewithinthesociallifeofearlyhumangroups.Butitdoesntanswerthequestion!Apesandotherprimateshavegruntsandsocialcalls,dotheyhavedevelopedthecapacityofspeech?,60,1.3.3theoral-gesturesourceOriginallyasetofphysicalgestureswasdevelopedasameansofcommunication.Thenasetoforalgestures,speciallyinvolvingthemouth,developed,inwhichthemovementsofthetongue,lipsandsoonwererecognizedaccordingtopatternsofmovementsimilartophysicalgestures.Eg.Themovementofthetongueingoodbyemessageisrepresentativeofthewavingoftheandorarmforasimilarmessage.Wecanindeedusespecificgesturesforavarietyofcommunicativepurposes,butItishardtovisualizetheactualoralaspectwhichwouldmirrormanysuchgestures.Agame:myunclethinkshesinvisible.,61,1.4.Functionsoflanguage,Linguiststalkaboutthefunctionsoflanguageinanabstractsense,thatis,notintermsofusinglanguagetochat,tothink,tobuyandsell,toreadandwrite,togreet,praiseandcondemnpeople,etc.Theysummarizethesepracticalfunctionsandattemptsomebroadclassificationsofthebasicfunctionsoflanguage.,62,ForJakobson,languageisaboveallforcommunication.Whileformanypeople,thepurposeofcommunicationisreferential,forhim(andthePragueschoolstructuralists),referenceisnottheonly,noteventheprimarygoalofcommunication.,63,Inhisfamousarticle,LinguisticsandPoetics,hedefinedsixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent,namely:speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact.Inconjunctionwiththese,Jakobsonestablishedawell-knownframeworkoflanguagefunctionsbasedonthesixkeyelementsofcommunication,namely:,64,referential(toconveymessageandinformation)poetic(toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake)emotive(toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions)conative(topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandrequests)phatic(toestablishcommunionwithothers)metalingual(toclearupintentionsandmeanings),65,Theycorrespondtosuchcommunicationelementsascontext,message,addresser,addressee,contactandcoderespectively.Jakobsonsviewsofthefunctionsofla