语言学概论chpt 4 syntaxppt课件

.,Syntax,DefinitionandconcernsofsyntaxTraditionalapproachTransformationalapproach,.,Pre-readingquestions:Studythefollowingsentencesandpickoutthoseincorrectones.,1.Theboyfoundtheball.2.Theboyfoundquickly.3.Theboyfoundinthehouse.4.Theboyfoundtheballinthehouse.,.,DefinitionofSyntax,WhatisSyntax?Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinlanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.,.,Mainconcernsofsyntax,Syntaxisaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectsentences.Theformorstructureofasentenceisgovernedbytherulesofsyntax.Theserulesspecifywordorder,sentenceorganizationandtherelationshipbetweenwords,wordclassesandothersentenceelements.,.,Forexample:,a.Theboykickedthedog.b.*Boytheballkickedthe.c.*Theballkickedtheboy.d.Maryisaclevergirl.e.*Maryareaclevergirl.,(violatingsyntacticrules),(semanticimplausible),(violatingsyntacticrules),Tobespecific,sentencebviolateswordorderrule,sentenceeviolatesagreementruleinEnglish.,.,RepresentativeApproaches,ThemostinfluentialapproachesinthestudyofSyntaxareasfollows:Thetraditionalapproach,thetransformationalapproach,thestructuralapproach,thesystemic-functionalgrammar.,.,TraditionalApproach,Traditionally,asentenceisseenasasequenceofwords.Thestudyofsentenceformation,therefore,involvesagreatdealofthestudyofofwords.,number,gender,casetense,aspect,voiceconcordandgovernment,.,Number,agrammaticalcategoryofnouns,pronouns,andadjectiveandverbagreementthatexpressescountdistinctionsForexample:SingularPeterkickedJohn.,GenitiveCase,ObjectiveCase,SubjectiveCase,ObjectiveCase,.,英语中的case主要体现为人称代词，它可分为主格（SubjectiveCase）、宾格（ObjectiveCase）和属格（GenitiveCase）三种形式。主格：I，you，he，she，it，we，you，they宾格：me，you，him，her，it，us，you，them属格：my，mine，your，yours，his，her，hers，its，our，ours，their，theirs属格又可分为形容词性物主代词（my，your，his，her，its，our，their）和名词性物主代词（mine，yours，his，hers，ours，theirs）,.,Concord,Concordisalsocalledagreement.Itisasyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsandphrasewhicharecompatible,inagivenconstruction,byvirtueofinflectioncarriedbyatleastoneofthem.Ex:Themanruns.Thesemenrun.Thebirdflies.Thesebirdsfly.,.,Government,Government(支配关系)isatypeofgrammaticalrelationshipbetweentwoormoreelementsinasentence,inwhichthechoiceofoneelementcausestheselectionofaparticularformofanother.Ithastypicallybeenusedtorefertotherelationshipbetweenverbsandnounsorbetweenprepositionsandnouns.Shewillgivethemtome.,.,TransformationalSyntax,BasicsofTransformationalSyntaxPhrasestructureruleTransformation:syntacticmovement,.,BasicsofTransformationalgrammar,ThetheoryoftransformationalapproachoriginatedwiththeAmericanlinguistNoamChomsky.In1957,hepublishedSyntacticStructures,afterthatthetheoryhasundergoneanumberofchanges.(HuangRen,2009)ItsalsocalledGenerativeGrammar,orTransformationalGenerativeGrammar.,.,DefinitionofCategories（范畴）,Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.,.,Word-levelcategory,Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)Alistofword-levelcategoriesClassificationofword-levelcategories,.,Alistofword-levelcategories,EightcategoriesintraditionalgrammarNoun:anyabstractorconcreteentity;aperson(child,Michael),place(city,Xian),thing(desk),idea(joy),orquality(bravery)Pronoun:anysubstituteforanounornounphrase(it,those)Adjective:anyqualifierofanoun(slim,big)Verb:anyaction(walk),occurrence(end),orstateofbeing(be)Adverb:anyqualifierofadjectives,verb,orotheradverb(soon)Preposition:anyestablisherofrelationsyntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.Thesyntacticcategoryofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead.,.,.,Complements补足语,Inadditiontoaspecifierandthehead,aphrasemayalsocontainacomplement,whichusuallyoccursontherightsideoftheheads.thebookonthedeskNevereatahamburgerQuitecertainaboutMaryAlmostinthehouseComplementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformation(aboutentitiesandlocations)whoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.,.,Theinformationaboutawordscomplementoptionsistermedsubcategorization.Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put,次范畴化,.,sampleheads,example,complementoption,Someexamplesofverbcomplements,handNPthemanNPamap,putNPthebookPPonthetable,.,Asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasinIbelievedthatshewasinnocent.Idoubtifshewillcome.,Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementarecomplementizers(Cs)(补语化成分).,Thesentencesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause(补语从句),C+complementclause=Complementphrase(补语短语)(shortenedasCP),Theconstructioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembeddediscalledmatrixclause(主句),.,Thereisnolimitonthenumberofembeddedclausesthatcanoccurinasentencesinceeachcomplementcancontainaverbthatitselfpermitsacomplementphrases.MissHebertbelievesthatshewillwinthegamewhichisorganizedbythenewcommitteethatarefullyawarethattheirtargettopromotethedevelopmentoffolkartsthat,.,NotallverbscantakeaCPcomplement.WordsthatcantakeCParenotverbsalone;As,NsandPscanalltakeCP.,.,Complements,howevermanyorlongthereare,occurtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.ThusthereisarevisedXPrule:,XP(specifier)X(complement*),.,Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.,Modifiers,.,Wheretoplacemodifers?,aninterestingstoryaboutEinstain?astoryinterestingaboutEinstain?readthebookcarefully?readcarefullythebook?drivethecarwithcaution?drivewithcautionthecar?,*,*,*,WhenamodiferprocedsHead,itsplacedafterthespecifier,whenitfollowsHead,itsplacedafterthecomplement.,XP(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod),.,XP(specifier)X(complement),XP(specifier)X(complement*),XP(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod),Pleaseanalyzethefollowingphrase:1.opentheboxwithcare2.avividstoryaboutabeautifulgirl,.,VPV+(NP)+(PP)VPV+(Complement)+(Mod),VDetNPNopentheboxwithcare,NP,PP,.,Pleasedecidewhetherthefollowingitemsarephrases.Ifyes,pleaseidentifythephrasecategoriesbylocatingtheirheadsandthenanalyzetheirstructure.,1.thetallmanwithglassesthatImet2.advisehiminawritingclassthatheshouldbuyanEnglishdictionary3.curiousoftheresults4.aftertheEnglishclass,man,(),(),advise,()(),(,）,curious,(),after,1.NP(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(CP)2.VPV(NP)(PP)(CP)3.APA(PP)4.PPP(NP),.,Sofar,weareclearabouttheXPruleandsomemodificationsofittoaccommodatemultiplecomplementsandmodifiers.However,amoredetailedanalysiswillrevealsomeflawsoftheXPrule.Consider:ThatmoviewillVPperhapseducatethepublic.NPnoquestionsaboutthissubject,Xtheory(X标杆理论),.,perhapseducatethepublic,Qual,v,NP,VP,VP,VP,Qual,NP,v,perhapseducatethepublic,AccordingtoXPrules,However,thesequence“educatethepublic”canalsoformaVP,asin“Iteducatedthepublic.”,TodistinguishthetwoVPs,theloweroneislabeledX.,X,.,Xtheory(X标杆理论),specifier,X(head),complement,X,(specifier)X,X(complement),ArevisedversionofXPrule,XP(phraselevel),a.XP,b.X,.,noquestionsaboutthissubject,PP,N,Det,N,NP,.,e.g.thedogwithblackearNPNSpecifier(Det)head(N)complement(PP)PrepNPAdjNthedogwithblackear,.,Note：Becausethree-levelstructureinXtheorytakeupaconsiderableamountofspaceandcanbetedioustodraw,itiscommonpracticetoeliminatetheintermediatelevelofphrasestructure,exceptinmorecomplicatedsyntacticanalysis.,.,Nowthatweareclearaboutthestructureofphrases,letsseethestructureofsentences.Aboyfoundtheevidence.,Howaresentencesstructured?,.,Traditionally,sentencesaretakentobetheproductoftheSrule.,TheSrule:SNPVPS,NP,VP,Det,N,V,NP,A,boy,found,Det,N,the,evidence,nointernalstructure,.,NP,VP,Infl,Aseperateruleforsentencestructure?OradjustittotheexistingXPrule?,Rulesshouldbeuniversallyexplanatory.Theremustbeaheadforasentence.,InflP(=S),Consideringeverysentencehastenseandagreement,ittakesanabstractcategory“inflection”(Infl)asitshead.,Subject,asspecifier,ashead,ascomplement,.,InflP(=S),NP,VP,Det,N,Infl,V,NP,A,boy,Past,found,Det,N,the,book,Inflrealizedbyatenselabel,.,InflP(=S),NP,Infl,VP,Det,N,The,boy,will,find,his,book.,V,NP,Det,N,Inflpositionrealizedbyanauxiliary,.,Pleasedrawtreediagramsofthefollowingsentences,1.Theearthmovesaroundthesun.2.Ihavefinishedmyjob.3.Youshouldkeepyourpromise.,.,Coordinatestructure并列结构:,Somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,andbut.Forexample:boysandgirlsbeautifulbutexpensive,Howtoaccomodatecoordinatestructures?,.,Coordinationrule并列规则:ThecoordinationrulecanbeformulatedasbelowXX*ConXTheasterisk(*)indicatesthatoneormorecategoriescanoccurtotheleftoftheCon(=conjunction).,.,Coordinationrule（并列规则）,1.Nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.2.acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.3.coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.4.Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.,.,Forexample,coffeeorteaTheOldManandtheSeaItried,butfailed.Theysang,danced,drank,andtalked.Mylittlebrotherisnaughtybutclever.JohnlovesMaryandMarylovesJohntoo.,.,Transformation:syntacticmovement,AuxiliarymovementDoinsertionWh-movementMoveandconstraintsontransformations,.,Auxiliarymovement,Sofar,XPrulehasexplainedtheformationofphrasesandsomesentences,butconsiderthefollowingyes-noquestions:Willthetrainarrive?Canthecatclimbthistree?,Howdoesthewordordercomeabout?TheycannotbeexplainedbyXPruleonly.,.,Aboywillfindtheevidence.Jimcanswimverywell.Willthetrainarrive?,Auxiliarymovement,（助动词）,.,C,Theyes-noquestionstructurearebuiltintwosteps:Step1:theusualXPruleisusedtoformastatement.Step2:formayes-noquestionusinginversion(倒置).,InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.,complementizer(补语化成分),awordwhichintroducethesentencecomplement.,InversionMoveInfltoC.(P54),Willthetrainarrive?,.,C,complementclause(=S),complementphrases(CP),matrixclause(主句),Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.,Auxiliarymovementisaspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelement(be,have,do,may,can,shall,should,etc.)fromonepositiontoanother.,.,transformation(转换)inversion(倒置),headmovement(中心词移位),e(empty):indicatingatrace(语迹),.,Pleaseanalyzethefollowingsentencebydrawingatreediagramforit:Shouldthestudentreporttheincident?,.,thestudentreporttheincident,DetNVDetN,Aux,should,e,.,However,notallyes-noquestionsarewithanovertauxiliary.Forexample:Dobirdsfly?Doesheworkinafactory?,Howdoes“do”or“does”comeabout?,.,Theyes-noquestionstructurearebuiltintwosteps:Step1:theusualXPruleisusedtoformastatement.DoinsertionisneededincaseofanemptyInflposition.Step2:formayes-noquestionusinginversion(倒置).,Birdsfly,Dobirdsfly?,NV,Doinsertion-InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.,Doinsertion,.,Practice,Pleasedrawtreediagramsforthefollowingsentences.DoyoulikeLinguistics?DoeshecomefromBeijing?,.,Considerthefollowingpairofsentences:Johniseasytoplease.Johniseagertoplease.,Aretheythesameordifferentinmeaning?Howdoyourunderstandtheirmeaning?,Deepstructure2)Planesthatareflyingaredangerous.,Structurallysimilar/samesentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.,.,Deepstructure(orD-structure)areformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththeheadssubcategorization(次范畴化)properties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.,Surfacestructure(orS-structure)isthefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.,.,CommonTransformationalRules,Deletion删除ThecatdisappearedandthedogdisappearedThecatandthedogdisappearedAddition增添Getout!Getoutofhere!Reordering重排CallMaryupCallupMary,.,surfacestructure:itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.,Willthetrainarrive?,deepstructure:formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththeheadssubcategorizationproperties,.,Theorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentofthegrammar,TheXPrule,Deepstructure,transformations,Surfacestructure,Subcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements,.,Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure,whiletheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromthelevelofD-structuretothatofS-structure.Iftheproductionofasurfacestructuredoesnotinvolvesyntacticmovementsinthedeepstructures,theD-structureandS-structurelookexactlythesame.Iftheproductionofasurfacestructureinvolvessyntacticmovementsinthedeepstructures,theD-structureandS-structurelookdifferent.,.,Tosumup,Deep/underlyingstructure/representationdeterminesthe_ofasentence.Whilesurfacestructure/representationistheresultofa_andittellsushowtowriteandspeakit.,meaning,transformation,.,Considerthederivationofthefollowingsentences:Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?Whowonthegame?shehasfinallyfoundthemanwhosheloves.Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.,deepstructures,Wh-movement,surfacestructures,.,Wh-movement-Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.Whatlanguagecanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?,transformation,inversion,inversion,whmovement,whmovement,.,Howtoincorporatethemovedwhphraseinthetreediagram?,Letsanalyzethefollowingsentences:Whatshouldthestudentreport?,.,thestudentreport,DetNVNP,Aux,should,e,what,NP,e,.,Wh-movement-MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised),1.Whphraseascomplementofaverborpreposition;2.Whphraseasasubject;3.Whmovementinrelativeclauses.,Whatwillyoutalkabout?,Whowonthegame?,youwilltalkaboutWhat,Thedog(thathekeeps)bites.,Thedog(hekeepswhat)bites.,.,DetNNVNVThedoghekeepswhatbites,Infl,Deepstructure,Wh-movement-MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.,.,DetNNNVNVThedogthathekeepsebites,Surfacestructure,whmovement,.,Moveandconstraintsontransformations,Move(orMoveAlpha)ruleisageneralter