法律英语专题：侵权法

.,TortLaw,.,General,TortacivilwrongwhichunfairlycausessomeoneelsetosufferlossorharmItdoesnotincludebreachofcontractortrust.(Acivilwrongcanbeatort,breachofcontractorbreachoftrust.)Purposeoftortlawtoproviderelieftotheinjuredpartythroughtheawardofdamagesfortheinjuriesincurredduringatortiousact,.,General,todeterothersfromcommittingthesameactUStortlawTortlawintheU.S.islargelycommonlaw.Courtshavethepowertoshapeandchangetheelementsofclaimsanddefensesofexistingtortsandthepowertocreatenewtorts.Statuteshavebeenpassedinattemptstoreformthetortsystem.,.,General,Mostofthemhaverelatedtoproceduralmattersandamountsandcategoriesofdamages.ManyjudgesutilizetheRestatementofTorts(2nd)asaninfluentialguide.TheRestatementisaninfluentialtreatiseissuedbytheAmericanLawInstitute,whichsummarizesthegeneralprinciplesofcommonlawUnitedStatestortlaw.Categoriesoftortsintentionaltorts,.,General,negligencestrictliabilitytorts,.,IntentionalTorts,.,General,DefinitionAnintentionaltortisatortresultingfromanintentionalactonthepartofthetortfeasor.Subcategoriestortsagainstthepersonassaultbatteryfalseimprisonmentintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistress,.,General,propertytortstrespasstolandtrespasstochattels(personalproperty)conversiondignitarytortsdefamationinvasionofprivacy,.,TortsAgainstthePerson,.,Assault,DefinitionanintentionalactthatcausesanapprehensionofimmediateharmfuloroffensivecontactApprehensionisnotthesameasfearhereitmeansawarenessthataninjuryoroffensivecontactisimminent.RequirementsTheactmustbeovert.Merewordsdonotconstituteanassault.,.,Assault,Theremustbeanaccompanyingact.Thedefendantmusthavetheapparentabilitytocarryoutthecontact.Actualabilitytocarryoutthecontactisnotnecessary.Theplaintiffmusthaveareasonableapprehensionofsuchcontact.Actualfearontheplaintiffspartisnotrequired.Examples,.,Assault,swingingabaseballbatatsomeoneholdingarockandthreateningtothrowitatsomeonepointingagunatsomeonepointingarealistictoygunatsomeoneCriminalassaultandtortiousassaultCriminalassaultcanoccurevenwhennothreatisperceivedbythevictim.Withthetortofassault,aperceivedthreatbythevictimisparamount.,.,Assault,Adefendantwhothrowsarockatasleepingvictimandmissescanonlybeguiltyoftheattemptedbatteryassault,sincethevictimwouldnotbeawareofthepossibleharm.,.,Battery,DefinitionanintentionalactthatcausesaharmfuloroffensivecontactHarmfulcontactcontactthatobjectivelyintendstoinjure,disfigure,impair,orcausepainOffensivecontactcontactthatwouldoffendapersonssenseofpersonaldignity,.,Battery,Examplesbeatingsomeonewithatireironspittinginsomeonesfaceknockingahatoffsomeonesheadwhippingahorseonwhichsomeonewasriding,causinghimtofallandbeinjuredmixingsomethingoffensiveinfoodthatheknowsanotherwilleattheotherdoesinfacteattheoffensivematter,.,Battery,diggingapitwiththeintentthatanotherwillfallintoitlatertheotherdoesinfactfallintoitCriminalandtortiousbatteryUsuallybatteryisprosecutedasacrimeonlyincasesinvolvingseriousharmtothevictim.Criminallawrecognizesdegreesofcrimesinvolvingphysicalcontact.Thereisbutasingletortofbattery.,.,FalseImprisonment,DefinitionthedetentionofapersoninaboundedareawithoutjustificationorconsentTheessenceofthetortisthenaturalmentalharmthatresultswhenonesfreedomisrestrictedwithoutjustification.Elementsintenttoconfineapersonwithinacertainarea,.,FalseImprisonment,actualconfinementawarenessoftheconfinementbythepersonsoconfinednoreasonablemeansofescapeFalsearrestFalsearrestoccurswhensomeonearrestsanotherindividualwithoutthelegalauthoritytodoso,whichbecomesfalseimprisonmentthemomentheorsheistakenintocustody.,.,IIED,DefinitionshortforintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistressreferredtoasthetortofoutrageinsomejurisdictionsintentionalconductthatresultsinextremeemotionaldistressElementsThedefendantmustactintentionallyorrecklessly.,.,IIED,Thedefendantsconductmustbeextremeandoutrageous.Theconductmustcausetheplaintifftosuffersevereemotionaldistress.SevereemotionaldistressThistortinvolvesmorethanhurtfeelings,disappointment,orworry.Theremustbeseverementalsuffering,i.e.suchthatnoreasonablepersonshouldbeexpectedtoendureit.,.,IIED,Thisstandardisquantifiedbytheintensity,duration,andanyphysicalmanifestations(ulcersorheadaches,forexample)ofthedistress.ExamplesApersonrefusedtoinformanotherofthewhereaboutsofthatotherschildforseveralyears,thoughthepersonknewwherethechildwastheentiretime.,.,IIED,Apersonsentalettertoanotherfalselyinforminghimthataclosefamilymemberofhishadbeenkilledinanaccident.,.,StatuteofLimitations,DefinitionanenactmentthatrestrictsthetimewithinwhichlegalproceedingsmaybeinitiatedObjectivetopreventclaimsfromarisingafterallevidencehasbeenlostorafterthefactshavebecomeobscurethroughthepassageoftime,orthedeathordisappearanceofwitnesses,.,StatuteofLimitations,FunctionThestatuteoflimitationsisadefensethatisordinarilyassertedbythedefendanttodefeatanactionbroughtagainsthimaftertheappropriatetimehaselapsed.ApplicationThedefendantmustraisethedefensebeforethecourtuponansweringtheplaintiffscomplaint.,.,StatuteofLimitations,Ifnot,heisregardedashavingwaivedthedefenseandwillnotbepermittedtouseitinanysubsequentproceedings.TollingthestatuteWhenthestatuteistolled,therunningoflimitationsissuspendeduntilsomeeventspecifiedbylawtakesplace.Mostjurisdictionsprovidethatthestatuteoflimitationsistolledundercertaincircumstances:,.,StatuteofLimitations,Theplaintiffisaminor.Theplaintiffhasbeendeemedinsane.Theplaintiffhasbeenconvictedofafelonyandisimprisoned.Thedefendantisinbankruptcy.,.,ShopkeepersPrivilege,GeneralInsomejurisdictionsoftheUS,thecourtsrecognizeacommonlawshopkeepersprivilege,underwhichashopkeeperisallowedtodetainasuspectedshoplifteronstorepropertyforareasonableperiodoftime,solongastheshopkeeperhasprobablecausetobelievethatthepersondetainedinfactcommitted,orattemptedtocommit,theftofstoreproperty.,.,ShopkeepersPrivilege,Thisprivilegedoesnotincludethepowerofsearch.RequisiteconditionsInvestigationonornearpremisesThedetentionitselfshouldbeeffectedeitheronthestorepremisesorintheimmediatevicinitythereof.ReasonablesuspicionTheshopkeeperhasreasonablegroundstosuspecttheparticularpersondetainedisshoplifting.,.,ShopkeepersPrivilege,ReasonableforceonlyOnlyreasonable,non-deadlyforceisusedtoeffectthedetention.ReasonableperiodandmannerofdetentionThedetentionitselfmaybeforonlythetimenecessarytomakeareasonableinvestigationofthefacts.,.,PropertyTorts,.,TrespasstoLand,GeneralTrespasstolandoccurswhenapersondirectlyentersuponanotherslandwithoutpermission,orremainsupontheland,orplacesorprojectsanyobjectupontheland.Thebasisforthistortistherighttoexclusivepossessionoftheland.NatureThistortisactionableperse.,.,TrespasstoLand,Damagesarenotrequiredtobeprovenforintentionaltrespass.Onlywhentheentryisnegligentisthereanyneedtoprovedamages.IntentTheintentrequirementoftrespassisonlythatthepersonintendedtoentertheproperty.Itisirrelevantwhetherornottheentryisamistake,causedbyignoranceoftheownershiportheboundaries.,.,TrespasstoLand,NoteTherightsinherentinthepossessionoflandextendaboveandbelowthesurface.,.,TrespasstoChattels,Definitiontheintentionalinterferencewithanotherpersonslawfulpossessionofachattel(movablepersonalproperty)Interferenceanyphysicalcontact(intermeddling)withthechattelinaquantifiablewayanydispossessionofthechattel(whetherbytakingit,destroyingit,orbarringtheownersaccesstoit),.,TrespasstoChattels,NoteIncasesofintermeddling,thereneedstobeactualharmsustainedbytheplaintiffinorderforhimtosue.Damagesarelimitedtotheactualharm(whichcanincludeeconomiclossasaresultofthetrespasse.g.lossofprofitonadamagedchattel).Incasesofdispossession,theplaintiffisalwaysentitledtodamagesevenifnoquantifiableharmcanbeproven.,.,TrespasstoChattels,ExampleHermanseeshisWarandPeacesittingonatable.Hepicksupthebook,putsitinhisbagandgoeshome.Infact,thebookbelongstoLeonandHermanhasmistakenitforhisowncopy.Inthiscase,HermanisliableforatrespasstochattelsbecauseheintendedtotakeLeonsbook,eventhoughhisactionwasbasedonareasonablemistake.,.,Conversion,GeneralConversionoccurswhensomeonewrongfullytakesorusespropertyofanotherfortheirownpurposesordestroysitoraltersitsnature.ConversionandtheftTheftwillalsobeconversion.Butnotallconversionsaretheftsbecauseconversionrequiresnoelementofdishonesty.,.,Conversion,PropertysubjecttoconversionItmustbepersonalproperty.Realpropertycannotbelostandthenfound.Itmustbetangible.money,ananimal,furniture,ortoolscropsortimber(aftertheyareseveredfromtheground)rightsinapaper,suchasalifeinsurancepolicy,astockcertificate,orapromissorynote,.,Conversion,ExamplesApersonhasanotherscartowedawayinordertotaketheparkingplace.Adrycleanermistakenlydeliversasuittothewrongcustomer.Amechanicborrowsasportscarheissupposedtorepairwithoutpermission.Aneighborlendsherhedgetrimmertoafriend,butthefriendusesittocutdownatree.,.,TrespasstoChattelsandConversion,GeneralThetwoconceptsarecloselyrelated.SimilarityBothincludethewrongful,intentionalinterferenceofpersonalproperty.DifferenceTheyaredifferentindegreethedamagedonetotheplaintiffspossessioninaconversioncaseismoreseverethaninatrespasscase.,.,TrespasstoChattelsandConversion,ApplicationIngeneral,whenanobjectisdamagedbutrepairable,trespasstochattelsisthemoreappropriatetort.Whensomethingisdestroyedorstolen,conversionismoreappropriate.Whentrespassisfound,apersoncanrecoverthevalueofthelostuseoftheitemandrecovertheitemitself.Conversion,instead,allowsapersontorecoverthefullvalueoftheitem.,.,TrespasstoChattelsandConversion,ExampleDaphnehitsMartysdogwithhercar.Thedogsuffersabrokenleg.ThiswouldbeanactionabletrespasstochattelsandMartywouldbeawardeddamagescommensuratewiththeharmdonebyDaphne.DaphnehitsMartysdogwithhercar.Thedogdies.Thiswouldbeanactionableconversion.Martywouldbeawardedthedogsfullvalue.,.,DignitaryTorts,.,Defamation,DefinitionthecommunicationofafalsestatementthatharmsapersonsreputationDefamatoryinformationmustbecommunicatedtoathirdperson.Typesslanderoraldefamation(spokenstatements)libelwrittendefamation(written,printedorbroadcastwords),.,Defamation,PublicfigurelawofdefamationApublicfigurealleginglibelmustproveactualmalice.Publicfiguresvoluntarilyplacethemselvesinapositionthatinvitesclosescrutiny.DefamationperseSomecategoriesofstatementsareconsidereddefamatoryperseinjuryispresumedandneedntbeproven.,.,Defamation,astatementthatnegativelyaffectsapersonsreputationrelatingtohisbusinessorprofessionallegationsthatapersonisunchasteallegationsthatapersonisinfectedwithasexuallytransmitteddiseaseallegationsthatapersonhascommittedacrimeofmoralturpitude(suchasrapeorincest)Defensestoclaimsofdefamationtruth,.,Defamation,opinionprivilegeevidencegivenincourtstatementsmadeinasessionofthelegislature,.,InvasionofPrivacy,Definitiontheintrusionintothepersonallifeofanother,withoutjustcauseCategoriesintrusionofsolitudeactualphysicalorelectronicintrusionintoapersonsprivatequartersApersonwasundressingathome,andsomeonefilmedthiswithouttellingtheperson.,.,InvasionofPrivacy,publicdisclosureofprivatefactsthedisseminationoftruthfulprivateinformationwhichareasonablepersonwouldfindobjectionableAnunscrupulousreporterrummagedthroughapublicfiguresgarbagetofindevidenceofprescriptiondruguseorotherhighlypersonalmatters.falselightthepublicationoffactswhichplaceapersoninafalselight,eventhoughthefactsthemselvesmaynotbedefamatory,.,InvasionofPrivacy,Falselightcasesareaboutdamagetoapersonspersonalfeelingsordignity,whereasdefamationisaboutdamagetoapersonsreputation.Areporterreturnedtothesceneofamassivebridgecollapseseveralyearsafterthetragedy.Thereporterattemptedtointerviewthewidowofamanwhodiedinthecrash.Thewidowandherchildrenwerenotathomesothereporterfabricatedastoryaboutthemwhichplacedtheminafalselightinthepubliceye.,.,InvasionofPrivacy,appropriationtheunauthorizeduseofapersonsnameorlikenesstoobtainsomebenefitsAlocalrestaurantusedacelebritysnameorimageinacommercialandimpliedanofficialendorsement.,.,Negligence,.,General,DefinitionconductthatbreachesastandardofcaredeemedbythelawasnecessarytoprotectothersfromunreasonablerisksofharmgenerallyexpressedasabreachofadutyElementsThedefendantowedadutyofcaretotheplaintiff;,.,General,thedefendantbreachedthatduty;andasaresultofthedefendantsbreachofthatduty,theplaintiffsufferedinjury.,.,StandardofCare,GeneralAllpeopleareunderadutytoconductthemselvesinsuchamannerasnottocreateunreasonablerisksofphysicalharmtoothers.Duringatrial,theconductofthedefendantisreviewedtodetermineifheorshehasmetthereasonablepersonstandard.Wouldareasonablepersonhaveactedsimilarlyundersimilarcircumstances?,.,StandardofCare,Reasonablepersonahypotheticalpersoninsocietywhoshowsaveragecare,skillorjudgmentinconductItisnotanaverageortypicalperson.Itisacompositeofacommunitysjudgmentastohowatypicalmemberofthatcommunityshouldbehaveinsituationsthatmightposeathreatofharmtothepublic.,.,StandardofCare,Eventhoughthemajorityofpeopleinthecommunitymaybehaveinacertainway,thatdoesnotestablishthestandardofconductofthereasonableperson.ReasonablepersonstandardApersonhasactednegligentlyifshehasdepartedfromconductexpectedofareasonablyprudentpersonactingundersimilarcircumstances.,.,StandardofCare,Itisacompletelyobjectivetestunderwhichsubjectiveelementsarenormallynottakenintoaccount.Subjectivetraitsofthetortfeasormaybeconsidered,buttheyareconsideredaccordingtoanobjectivestandard.,.,Causation,GeneralToestablishcausationinnegligencecasestheplaintiffmustprovethatthedefendantsactwasboththecause-in-factandtheproximatecauseofhisinjuries.Cause-in-factThebut-fortestWouldtheplaintiffhavebeeninjuredbutfortheactofthedefendant?,.,Causation,ThesubstantialfactortestWasthedefendantsactionasubstantialfactorincausingtheplaintiffsinjury?ProximatecauseThedirectnesstestThedefendantsactistheproximatecauseoftheplaintiffsinjuryifthereisanunbrokensequenceofeventsbetweentheactandtheharm.Theforeseeabilitytest,.,Causation,Itissufficientifareasonablepersonwouldhaveforeseentheharmfulresults.InterveningcauseaneventwhichoccursafterthedefendantsnegligentacthasoccurredandwhichcontributestotheinjuryIftheinterveningcausewastheproximatecauseoftheplaintiffsinjury,thedefendantsactwillnotbeconsideredtheproximatecause.,.,Causation,Iftheinterveningcausewasforeseeable,thedefendantwilloftenbeheldliableforthisadditionalharm.,.,NIED,GeneralshortfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistressacontroversialcauseofactionavailableinnearlyallUSstatesbutseverelyconstrainedandlimitedinthemajorityofthemNIEDandIIEDInanactionforNIEDthereisnoneedtoproveintenttoinflictdistress.,.,NIED,Anaccidentalinfliction,ifnegligent,issufficienttosupportacauseofaction.UnderlyingconceptOnehasalegaldutytousereasonablecaretoavoidcausingmentaldistresstoanotherindividual.Ifonebreachesthisdutyandunreasonablycausesmentaldistresstoanotherindividual,hewillbeliablefordamagestotheinjuredindividual.,.,ContributoryNegligence,DefinitionadefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryifhisorherownactsoromissionscontributetotheinjuryBurdenofproofInsomejurisdictions,thedefendanthastoprovethenegligenceoftheplaintifforclaimant.Inothers,theburdenisontheplaintifftodisprovehisownnegligence.,.,ContributoryNegligence,DisadvantageItisoftenregardedasunfairbecauseunderthedoctrineavictimwhoisatfaulttoanydegree,includingonly1%atfault,willbedeniedcompensationentirely.ResultIthasbeendeletedasadefensefromthevastmajorityofstatutesandreplacedwithcomparativenegligence.,.,ComparativeNegligence,Definitionadefensethatreducestheamountofdamagesthataplaintiffcanrecoverinanegligence-basedclaimbaseduponthedegreetowhichtheplaintiffsownnegligencecontributedtotheinjuryTypesPurecomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffis90%atfaultheorshecanstillrecover10%ofhislosses.,.,ComparativeNegligence,PartialcomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffismorethan50%atfaultheorshecannotrecover.,.,AssumptionofRisk,DefinitionadefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryagainstanegligenttortfeasoriftheplaintiffvoluntarilyandknowinglyassumedtherisksinherenttotheactivityinwhichheparticipatedRationaleUponassumptionoftherisk,thereisnolongeradutyofcarerunningfromthedefendanttotheplaintiff.,.,AssumptionofRisk,Withoutadutyowedbythedefendant,therecanbenonegligenceonhispart.ClassificationsExpressassumptionofriskoccurswhenaplaintiffexplicitlyagreestotakeonarisk.Thisisoftendonethroughacontract.Impliedassumptionofriskoccurswhentheplaintiffsactionsimplythathehasconsentedtoassumetherisk.,.,AssumptionofRisk,ExampleJoebrokehisarmwhenhefellintoamanholewhilewalkingdownthestreetinatown.Theareawherethemanholewashadbeenropedoffandlargesignspostedwarningpedestrianstoavoidit.Initsdefense,thetownmayraisethedoctrineofassumptionofrisk.,.,StrictLiabilityTorts,.,General,StrictliabilityStrictliabilityisliabilitywithoutfault(suchasnegligenceortortiousintent).Undercertaincircumstances,aplaintiffmaybeallowedrecoveryevenifthereisnofaultonthepartofthedefendant.ApplicationStrictliabilityisoftenimposedonthoseengagedinabnormallydangerousactivities.,.,General,Strictliabilityisalsoimposedonsellersandmanufacturersofproducts.,.,AbnormallyDangerousActivity,Definitionanactivitythatissoinherentlydangerousthatapersonengagedinitcanbeheldstrictlyliableforinjuriescausedtoanotherperson,evenifhehastakeneveryreasonableprecautiontopreventothersfrombeinginjuredalsotermedinherentlydangerousactivityorultrahazardousactivityCategories,.,AbnormallyDangerousActivity,Transportation,storage,anduseofultrahazardousmaterialsdynamiteandotherexplosivesradioactivematerialscertainhazardouschemicalsKeepingofdangerousanimalswildanimals(i.e.animalsthatarenotnormallydomesticatedinthatarea)domesticatedanimalsthathaveaknownpropensityfordangerousbehavior(e.g.,adogthathasattackedpeoplebefore),.,AbnormallyDangerousActivity,Theseactivitiesareallowableaslongasnoharmoccurs.ExceptionApersonwhoisinjuredbyoneoftheseactivitieswhiletrespassingonthepropertyofthepersonengagedintheactivityisbarredfromsuingunderastrictliabilitytheory.Instead,heorshemustprovethatthepropertyownerwasnegligent.,.,ProductLiability,DefinitiontheresponsibilityofamanufacturerorvendorofgoodstocompensateforinjurycausedbydefectivemerchandisethatithasprovidedforsaleProductliabilityclaimsintheUSnegligenceclaimsstrictliabilityclaimsbreachofwarrantyclaimsvariousconsumerprotectionclaims,.,ProductLiability,Strictliabilit