研究生英语高级写作五ppt课件

.,句子的一致、连贯和强调,正确句(CorrectSentence)1)正确句是一个语法概念，即要求一个句子的语法正确。2)正确性也包括语音和词汇正确，如口语中音发错了，书面语中词语错了(包括拼法)，就不算正确句子。,有效句(EffectiveSentence)1)有效句指一个句子能有效地达到交际目的。显然有效句必须是正确句。语法上不正确的句子，或者是有发音错误，有时也可以交际，即对方能够理会意思，但有效性很不可靠，往往会造成误解，造成文际障碍。,2)要实现句子的有效性，当然还涉及是否适合语境和对象等问题。我们这里仅从修辞角度讨论句子本身结构上应具备的基本要求。句子的一致，句子的连贯和句子的强调。,.,句子的一致(SentenceUnity),句子一致的含义1)一致性是指句子所表示的思想是一个完整的统一体。例如：Janesatdown,pickedupherpenandstartedtowritehercomposition:“Igotupearly,Momtoldmethattherewasalwaystrafficjamandourcarwasalittlebittoooldandweneedbuynewone.”,例句中Jane的作文的开头两句话就不够一致：第一句意思欠完整，需补上动作发生的时间，第二句所表示的思想不统一，因为没有讲明两个分句之间的联系，也同第一句割裂，故它们没有形成一个完整的统一体。,.,2)一致性是对句子结构的首要要求，全句使用的词语都要紧密地围绕一个中心思想，凡未达到这项要求的句子都应改写。例如对上面例子中那个学生的作文可作必要的增删：,IgotupearlyMondaymorning.Momtoldmethattherewasalwaysheavytraffic,andasourcarwasabitoldandcouldntrunfast,wedbetterstartearlier.,对缺乏一致性句于的两种处理方法:1)为了取得句子的一致性，对句中与中心思想无关的内容应加删简。例如：,Parkingspaceonthecompasswhichisoneofthemostbeautifulinthestate,hasbecomecompletelymadeinadequate,andrecentlythecitycouncilvotedtoincreasebutfatesagain.,.,此句的中心内容是讲停车场已经非常紧张，市府决定再次提高公共汽车费，势必使更多的人用私人汽车，从而加剧停车场紧张的局面。由于which引导的分句同本句中心内容无关，故应删去。,上例中的两个分句由逗号and连接，形式上是一个完整的句子，但实际上两个分句之间并未形成有机的连接，中心思想未得到明确的表述，为此应当改写.一种办法是把并列分句改为主从分句：,2)对于结构过于松散，未能明白地表示中心思想的句子应加以改写。例如：,IworryaboutwhetherIwillgetajob,andIamconvincedthatnewopportunitieswillopenupbeforetheendofspring.,.,IworryaboutwhetherIwillgetajob,thoughImconvincedthatnewopportunitieswillopenupbeforetheendofspring.,也可以再增加一个分句，从而使全句的中心思想明白地表现出来:IworryaboutwhetherIwillgetajob.AlthoughIamconvincedthatnewopportunitieswillopenupbeforetheendofspring,Istillcanthelpbeinganxiousaboutmyprospects.,.,句子的连贯(SentenceCoherence),句子连贯的含义1)句子连贯指句中的成分之间具有合乎逻辑的有机联系，全句所表述的思路清晰，使交际对方容易得到要领。例如：,Itgoeswithoutsayingthatonecannotworklogicallywithastatementwhichdoesnothaveaclear-cut,ascertainablemeaning,这是一个以“it”作形式主语的句子，后面“that”分句为实际主语，在该分句中又以“notnot”结构为主干，既紧凑，又清晰，确是一个有机整体。,2)上节讲到的句子“一致”是指句中的成分都要围绕和服务于全句中心思想的表达，即与中心思想形成有机联系；这里讲到的“连贯”则是指句中的成分之间,.,要形成有机的横向联系。“一致”和“一贯”。两者之间既有区别，又密切相关。例如：,Alltheplayersjumpedfromthebenchandtherefereemadeanunfairannouncementoftheresults.,这是一个并列句，其两个分句之间表面上虽有and连接，但并未能表示出两个分句之间的逻辑联系，即未达到连贯要求，因而也未能实现句子的一致，结果整句的思想表达得不清楚。为此应照下述方法加以改写：,Therefereemadeanunfairannouncementoftheresultsand(so)alltheplayersjumpedfromthebenchAsWhentherefereemadeanunfairannouncementoftheresults，alltheplayersjumpedfromthebenchAlltheplayersjumpedfromthebenchbecausetherefereemadeanunfairannouncementoftheresults.,.,影响句子连贯的若干因素1)从语法方面看，经常会影响到句子连贯的因素有并列结构安排失当，代词所指对象不明确，垂悬修饰或修饰语错位，时态、人称、数或语气不一致，句子结构混乱或不完全，等等例如：,Thereportischieflyaboutinflationarytrendsinthelastdecadeandthattheconsumerhaslostconfidenceinthequalityofmanyproducts,介词about的并列宾语一为短语，一为分句，属于并列结构安排失当，应当将that分句改为短语：Thereportischieflyaboutinflationarytrendsinthelastdecadeandthatconsumerhaslostconfidenceinthequalityofmanyproducts.,Herodethatsnowynightandslippedintoaditch,butitwasnotserious例中代词it所指不明确，故句子应加改写：,.,butluckilyenough,hedidntgethurt.又如:Everymemberofourresearchteamworkedconscientiously,thusproducingoneofthebestprojectsProfessorAmeshaseverreceived.,例句中ing分词短语的修饰对象不明确，全句含义未能得到确切表达，故宜改为：BecauseAseverymemberofourresearchteamworkedconscientiously,weproducedoneofthebestprojectsProfessorAmeshaseverreceived.,又如:Lookatthatridiculousladyshat!修饰语位置不当会引起歧义或显得滑稽可笑，有时会造成误解。上例中的修饰语位置不当，应改为:Lookatthatladysridiculoushat!,.,又如:Whenwebeganourcompositioncourse,therewaslittleknowledgeabouttheimportanceofstrategyinthewritingofapaper.Correctnessinspelling,punctuation,andgrammaticalusagewaswhathadbeendrilledintous;buttheeffectsofinterrelationshipsamongspeaker,audience,andoccasionwereforeigntous,上例两个较长的句子讲的是作者，但由于用了4个不同的主语,影响了句子的连贯和一致，故应改为：Atthebeginningofourcompositioncourse,weknewlittleabouttheimportanceofstrategyinthewritingofapaper.Weknewthenecessityforcorrectnessinspelling,punctuationandgrammaticalusagebutwereunawareoftheeffectsofinter-relationshipsamongspeaker,audience,andoccasion.,.,2)从修辞角度看，词语选用不当，辞格应用不当，重复、省略等其他修辞手法运用不当，都会影响到句子的连贯(同时也会损坏句子的致)。例如：,Onhearingthathisfatherhadkickedthebucket,Iwrotehimlettertoexpressmysorrowsandsympathies.,句子“kickthebucket”是俚浯，既粗俗、又轻浮，相当汉语中讲某人“翘辫子”。这里把俚语用到一个表示忧伤和同情的句子里，显然很不恰当，而应选用委婉语的形式，如“passaway”，“benomore”，“depart”，等。又如：Flattenshillslikeflattensthefloor,这是一个广告稿，意在用夸张手法宣传使用该汽车爬山时高山变成了平地，但flattens重复使用时出现下败笔：既然是floor，就用不着再去flatten，为此应改为：Flattenshillslikedrivingonthefloor,.,又如：Thecampaignwassuccessfulandcostly，butthevictorywassweet,两个问题影响了句子的连贯：一是不应当用and连接两个含义上矛盾的并列成分，而应用表示转折、对照关系的but；二是用词不精练，successful和victory在含义上重复。该句可改写为：Thecampaignwascostly，butthevictorywassweet.,.,句子的强调(SentenceEmphasis),句子强调的含义句子的强调指把句中表示重要意义的成份或词语安排在句中较为显著的位置。一般说来，句首和句尾是受强调的位置。请看下面两个例句：,Herhandswerealwaysmoving,pushingherglassesbackupherslimnose,pattingherhairintoplace,tappinganon-existentashofftheendofherWhenmyfatherhadbeenwheeledintotherecoveryroom,andtheheartmonitorandtheglucosetubeshadbeendisconnected,Ifinallyrelaxed,2)对内容加以夸张，对某些词语加下横线，改粗体或斜体，以及使用感叹号，等等，都能起到强调作用。但这里所讲的强调主要指对句子结构的安排和调整，,.,使作者想着重表达的思想得到突出，做到次要内容服务于主要内容，有轻有重，层次分明。,句子强调的几种手段:除上面提到的以外，还可通过调整句中成分位置的方式强调某个句子成份。例如：,TheAmericangirldroveherredcartoschoollastsemester若要强调句中的女孩是美国人，则可作如下调整：Thegirl,anAmerican,droveherredcartoschoollastsemester.或:Thegirl,whowasanAmerican,drovehercartoschoollastsemester.又如：Shemightneverseehimagainiftheplanecamelate.,.,若把条件分句提前，或者在主句与从句之间加上破折号，都可使原句的意思得到强调：Iftheplanecamelateshemightneverseehimagain或:Shemightneverseehimagain-iftheplanecamelate.,2)重复、省略和平行对照结构的使用，都是达到句子强调的有效方式例如:,Andthishellwas,simply,thathehadneverinhislifeownedanything-nothiswife,norhishouse,norhischildwhichcouldnot,atanyinstant,betakenfromhimbythepowerofwhitepeopleNowisthetimetorisefromthedarkanddesolatevalleyofsegregationtothesunlitpathofracialjusticNowisthetimetolifeournationfromthequicksandsofracialinjusticetothesolidrockofbrotherhood,.,Tryandrevisethefollowing,whereveryoufindnecessary:1.ForalmosttenweeksinJanuary,thecoldestmonthinthatareaandmuchcolderthanmanyoftheirhometowns,thePOWswerekeptinanunheatedcampatnight,thecoldcausedmanydeathsanddiseasesandinparticular,thevictimswerewomenandchildren.2.Suchplantstooperatesuccessfullyhadtorunatcapacity.Astheywantedtodothis,theyneededoutletsfortheiroutput.,.,ForalmosttenweeksinJanuary,thecoldestmouthinthatarea,thePOWswerekeptinanunheatedcampatnight,whichcausedmanydeathsanddiseases.Mostofthevictimswerewomenandchildren.,2.Suchplantstooperatesuccessfullyhadtorunatcapacity.Torunatcapacitytheyneededoutletsfortheirwholeoutput.,.,关于增加句型变化,什么是句型变化“句型”在这里指的是各种句子形式。这和外语教学中常用的练习形式“句型操练”中的“句型”意思不完全相同，后者专指语言中带有规律性、又可广泛使用的各类句式，而我们所说的“句型”则更广一些，包括通过语法学到的简单句、并列句、复合句(包括各种各样用不同连接词引出的复合句)和它们按功能分成的陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句，以至写作中所谓的松散句、尾重句和长句、短句、一字句等等各种句子形式。所谓“变化”是指将各种形式的句子结合起来使用,尽力使它们同台表演，各显其能，而不是仅仅依靠几种形式的句子做文章，从而使人感到句型单调枯燥。,.,需要提醒的是所谓句型变化只是句子形式的变化。然而语言却总是形式与内容的统一体，形式应当是由内容来决定的。通过适当的语言形式来体现这统一和连贯。从写句子来说，我们应当注意它们的形式变化，注意句型多样性，但它们的使用必须符合所表达的思想内容的要求，不应当为了想用某种句型而硬将它塞入段或篇中。学生学到某种句子形式后可能会产生将它运用在自己写作中的欲望，有这种欲望比没有这种欲望好，但必须牢记是否真能用得上还要看是否真是符合在一定的上下文中表达思想内容的要求。例如：Manyteacherscangivestudentsinformation.Veryfewcaninspirestudentstolearn.Informationisoflittleusetothestudent.Soonhewillleavecollege.Thenhewillforgetwhathehasmemorized.Hemustbeinspiredtolearnonhisown.,.,可作如下修改:Manyteacherscangivestudentsinformation,butfewcaninspirethemtolearn.Whenastudentleavescollege,theinformationhehasmemorizedwillbeoflittleuseandwillsoonbeforgotten.Whatheneedsmostistheabilitytolearnonhisown.,其实改进的办法很多，下面的写法不是也比原先的好吗?Whilemanyteacherscangivestudentsinformation,fewcaninspirethemtolearn.Butinformationwhichastudenthasmemorizedwillbeoflittleusetohimandwillsoonbeforgottenonceheleavescollege.Hencehemustbeinspiredtolearnonhisown.,.,1.改正下列句中的错误Myfatherrealizedthatthedogwassoontobreatheitslast.(2)Anyonecanwinanargumentwhenittakesplaceintheirownmind.(3)NeitherthebushnorthetreeIplantedlastyearseemlikelytosurvive.(4)Eachoftheplansforfinancingtheconstructionofthebridgehavelimitations.(5)Thedoglaiddownbythesofa.IthoughtIknewalotaboutcomputeruntilIattendtheclass.(7)Lastsummerwewouldgotothebeacheverymorningandswamuntilnoontime.,.,(8)Inthecountry,Iwasoncestingedmercilesslybyaswarmofbees.(9)Eventhougheveryoneelsewasinapanic,Wangremaincalm.(10)Fromthestartledlookoftheplayersonthestage,theaudiencecouldtellthecurtainhadbeenrisentooearly.(11)MymotherwasmorehappierthanIwhenIwasadmittedintotheuniversity.(12)WheneverIgetaletterfromhome,Iwasoverjoyed.(13)Havingspentweekswritingthepaper,ahighgradewasgivenmebytheprofessor.(14)Theofficialshakedhandswithallofus.(15)Thecarwassoldshortlyafterputtingupanotice.,.,(16)Weperformedbeforethevillagers,theyrespondedenthusiastically.(17)Myroommatefailedtowakemeup,Imissedthefinalexam.(18)Thefire-fightersworkedfiercely.Tocontroltheblaze.(19)Inmyopinion,toread,towrite,andthinkingarethethreemostimportantactivitiesinschool.(20)Nightcame,wecouldnotseeourhandsbeforeourfaces.2.将下列简单句连成复合句或并列句：Forsomepeoplemathematicsisagreatpleasure.Theyareabletothinkabstractly.(2)Mymotherworksinabank.Mymotherisforty-eight.,.,Ivisitedmyuncle.Ihadnotseenmyuncleinrightyears.(4)Thehusbandsdiscussedsports.Thewivesdiscussedtheirchildren.(5)Wehopedtherainwouldsooncease.Wewouldhatetospendthewholedayamusingourselvesindoors.(6)Iwillapplyforateachingjobintheuniversity.ImaybeabletoremaininschoolandpursueacareerIlike.(7)WorldWarIIendedin1945.Theresoonbeganthecoldwar.(8)JaneEyrewassenttoLowoodAsylum.JaneEyrewastreatedharshlyintheinstitution.,.,(9)Manyreaderscriticizedthebookseverely.Theauthorhadtomakemajorrevisionsinthesecondedition.(10)Ptolemybelievedtheearthwasthecenteroftheuniverse.Copernicusbelievedtheearthandotherplanetsrevolvedaroundthesun.(11)Ateamofmanagementconsultantswascalledintomakeaninvestigation.Productionhaddropped14percentoverthepastyear.(12)Itissummerinthisn