外文翻译-建筑的组成部分及高层结构

COMPONENTSOFABUILDINGANDTALLBUILDINGS建筑的组成部分及高层结构资料来源HTTP/WWWDOCINCOM/P56543829HTML设计题目吉林艺术学院办公楼结构、施工设计学生姓名学院名称土木工程学院专业名称土木工程专业班级名称土木0941班学号指导教师教师职称讲师完成时间2013472013年4月7日一、外文原文COMPONENTSOFABUILDINGANDTALLBUILDINGS1ABSTRACTMATERIALSANDSTRUCTURALFORMSARECOMBINEDTOMAKEUPTHEVARIOUSPARTSOFABUILDING,INCLUDINGTHELOADCARRYINGFRAME,SKIN,FLOORS,ANDPARTITIONSTHEBUILDINGALSOHASMECHANICALANDELECTRICALSYSTEMS,SUCHASELEVATORS,HEATINGANDCOOLINGSYSTEMS,ANDLIGHTINGSYSTEMSTHESUPERSTRUCTUREISTHATPARTOFABUILDINGABOVEGROUND,ANDTHESUBSTRUCTUREANDFOUNDATIONISTHATPARTOFABUILDINGBELOWGROUNDTHESKYSCRAPEROWESITSEXISTENCETOTWODEVELOPMENTSOFTHE19THCENTURYSTEELSKELETONCONSTRUCTIONANDTHEPASSENGERELEVATORSTEELASACONSTRUCTIONMATERIALDATESFROMTHEINTRODUCTIONOFTHEBESSEMERCONVERTERIN1885GUSTAVEEIFFEL18321932INTRODUCEDSTEELCONSTRUCTIONINFRANCEHISDESIGNSFORTHEGALERIEDESMACHINESANDTHETOWERFORTHEPARISEXPOSITIONOF1889EXPRESSEDTHELIGHTNESSOFTHESTEELFRAMEWORKTHEEIFFELTOWER,984FEET300METERSHIGH,WASTHETALLESTSTRUCTUREBUILTBYMANANDWASNOTSURPASSEDUNTIL40YEARSLATERBYASERIESOFAMERICANSKYSCRAPERSELISHAOTISINSTALLEDTHEFIRSTELEVATORINADEPARTMENTSTOREINNEWYORKIN1857IN1889EIFFELINSTALLEDTHEFIRSTELEVATORSONAGRANDSCALEINTHEEIFFELTOWER,WHOSEHYDRAULICELEVATORSCOULDTRANSPORT2,350PASSENGERSTOTHESUMMITEVERYHOUR2LOADCARRYINGFRAMEUNTILTHELATE19THCENTURY,THEEXTERIORWALLSOFABUILDINGWEREUSEDASBEARINGWALLSTOSUPPORTTHEFLOORSTHISCONSTRUCTIONISESSENTIALLYAPOSTANDLINTELTYPE,ANDITISSTILLUSEDINFRAMECONSTRUCTIONFORHOUSESBEARINGWALLCONSTRUCTIONLIMITEDTHEHEIGHTOFBUILDINGBECAUSEOFTHEENORMOUSWALLTHICKNESSREQUIRED；FORINSTANCE,THE16STORYMONADNOCKBUILDINGBUILTINTHE1880SINCHICAGOHADWALLS5FEET15METERSTHICKATTHELOWERFLOORSIN1883,WILLIAMLEBARONJENNEY18321907SUPPORTEDFLOORSONCASTIRONCOLUMNSTOFORMACAGELIKECONSTRUCTIONSKELETONCONSTRUCTION,CONSISTINGOFSTEELBEAMSANDCOLUMNS,WASFIRSTUSEDIN1889ASACONSEQUENCEOFSKELETONCONSTRUCTION,THEENCLOSINGWALLSBECOMEA“CURTAINWALL”RATHERTHANSERVINGASUPPORTINGFUNCTIONMASONRYWASTHECURTAINWALLMATERIALUNTILTHE1930S,WHENLIGHTMETALANDGLASSCURTAINWALLSWEREUSEDAFTERTHEINTRODUCTIONOFBUILDINGSCONTINUEDTOINCREASERAPIDLYALLTALLBUILDINGSWEREBUILTWITHASKELETONOFSTEELUNTILWORLDWARAFTERTHEWAR,THESHORTAGEOFSTEELANDTHEIMPROVEDQUALITYOFCONCRETELEDTOTALLBUILDINGBEINGBUILTOFREINFORCEDCONCRETEMARINATOWER1962INCHICAGOISTHETALLESTCONCRETEBUILDINGINTHEUNITEDSTATES；ITSHEIGHT588FEET179METERSISEXCEEDEDBYTHE650FOOT198METERPOSTOFFICETOWERINLONDONANDBYOTHERTOWERSACHANGEINATTITUDEABOUTSKYSCRAPERCONSTRUCTIONHASBROUGHTARETURNTOTHEUSEOFTHEBEARINGWALLINNEWYORKCITY,THECOLUMBIABROADCASTINGSYSTEMBUILDING,DESIGNEDBYEEROSAARINENIN1962,HASAPERIMETERWALLCONSISTINGOF5FOOT15METERWIDECONCRETECOLUMNSSPACED10FEET3METERSFROMCOLUMNCENTERTOCENTERTHISPERIMETERWALL,INEFFECT,CONSTITUTESABEARINGWALLONEREASONFORTHISTRENDISTHATSTIFFNESSAGAINSTTHEACTIONOFWINDCANBEECONOMICALLYOBTAINEDBYUSINGTHEWALLSOFTHEBUILDINGASATUBE；THEWORLDTRADECENTERBUILDINGISANOTHEREXAMPLEOFTHISTUBEAPPROACHINCONTRAST,RIGIDFRAMESORVERTICALTRUSSESAREUSUALLYPROVIDEDTOGIVELATERALSTABILITY3SKINTHESKINOFABUILDINGCONSISTSOFBOTHTRANSPARENTELEMENTSWINDOWSANDOPAQUEELEMENTSWALLSWINDOWSARETRADITIONALLYGLASS,ALTHOUGHPLASTICSAREBEINGUSED,ESPECIALLYINSCHOOLSWHEREBREAKAGECREATESAMAINTENANCEPROBLEMTHEWALLELEMENTS,WHICHAREUSEDTOCOVERTHESTRUCTUREANDARESUPPORTEDBYIT,AREBUILTOFAVARIETYOFMATERIALSBRICK,PRECASTCONCRETE,STONE,OPAQUEGLASS,PLASTICS,STEEL,ANDALUMINUMWOODISUSEDMAINLYINHOUSECONSTRUCTION；ITISNOTGENERALLYUSEDFORCOMMERCIAL,INDUSTRIAL,ORPUBLICBUILDINGBECAUSEOFTHEFIREHAZARD4FLOORSTHECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEFLOORSINABUILDINGDEPENDSONTHEBASICSTRUCTURALFRAMETHATISUSEDINSTEELSKELETONCONSTRUCTION,FLOORSAREEITHERSLABSOFCONCRETERESTINGONSTEELBEAMSORADECKCONSISTINGOFCORRUGATEDSTEELWITHACONCRETETOPPINGINCONCRETECONSTRUCTION,THEFLOORSAREEITHERSLABSOFCONCRETEONCONCRETEBEAMSORASERIESOFCLOSELYSPACEDCONCRETEBEAMSRIBSINTWODIRECTIONSTOPPEDWITHATHINCONCRETESLAB,GIVINGTHEAPPEARANCEOFAWAFFLEONITSUNDERSIDETHEKINDOFFLOORTHATISUSEDDEPENDSONTHESPANBETWEENSUPPORTINGCOLUMNSORWALLSANDTHEFUNCTIONOFTHESPACEINANAPARTMENTBUILDING,FORINSTANCE,WHEREWALLSANDCOLUMNSARESPACEDAT12TO18FEET37TO55METERS,THEMOSTPOPULARCONSTRUCTIONISASOLIDCONCRETESLABWITHNOBEAMSTHEUNDERSIDEOFTHESLABSERVESASTHECEILINGFORTHESPACEBELOWITCORRUGATEDSTEELDECKSAREOFTENUSEDINOFFICEBUILDINGSBECAUSETHECORRUGATIONS,WHENENCLOSEDBYANOTHERSHEETOFMETAL,FORMDUCTSFORTELEPHONEANDELECTRICALLINES5MECHANICALANDELECTRICALSYSTEMSAMODERNBUILDINGNOTONLYCONTAINSTHESPACEFORWHICHITISINTENDEDOFFICE,CLASSROOM,APARTMENTBUTALSOCONTAINSANCILLARYSPACEFORMECHANICALANDELECTRICALSYSTEMSTHATHELPTOPROVIDEACOMFORTABLEENVIRONMENTTHESEANCILLARYSPACESINASKYSCRAPEROFFICEBUILDINGMAYCONSTITUTE25OFTHETOTALBUILDINGAREATHEIMPORTANCEOFHEATING,VENTILATING,ELECTRICAL,ANDPLUMBINGSYSTEMSINANOFFICEBUILDINGISSHOWNBYTHEFACTTHAT40OFTHECONSTRUCTIONBUDGETISALLOCATEDTOTHEMBECAUSEOFTHEINCREASEDUSEOFSEALEDBUILDINGWITHWINDOWSTHATCANNOTBEOPENED,ELABORATEMECHANICALSYSTEMSAREPROVIDEDFORVENTILATIONANDAIRCONDITIONINGDUCTSANDPIPESCARRYFRESHAIRFROMCENTRALFANROOMSANDAIRCONDITIONINGMACHINERYTHECEILING,WHICHISSUSPENDEDBELOWTHEUPPERFLOORCONSTRUCTION,CONCEALSTHEDUCTWORKANDCONTAINSTHELIGHTINGUNITSELECTRICALWIRINGFORPOWERANDFORTELEPHONECOMMUNICATIONMAYALSOBELOCATEDINTHISCEILINGSPACEORMAYBEBURIEDINTHEFLOORCONSTRUCTIONINPIPESORCONDUITSTHEREHAVEBEENATTEMPTSTOINCORPORATETHEMECHANICALANDELECTRICALSYSTEMSINTOTHEARCHITECTUREOFBUILDINGBYFRANKLYEXPRESSINGTHEM；FOREXAMPLE,THEAMERICANREPUBLICINSURANCECOMPANYBUILDING1965INDESMOINES,IOWA,EXPOSESBOTHTHEDUCTSANDTHEFLOORSTRUCTUREINANORGANIZEDANDELEGANTPATTERNANDDISPENSESWITHTHESUSPENDEDCEILINGTHISTYPEOFAPPROACHMAKESITPOSSIBLETOREDUCETHECOSTOFTHEBUILDINGANDPERMITSINNOVATIONS,SUCHASINTHESPANOFTHESTRUCTURE6SOILSANDFOUNDATIONSALLBUILDINGARESUPPORTEDONTHEGROUND,ANDTHEREFORETHENATUREOFTHESOILBECOMESANEXTREMELYIMPORTANTCONSIDERATIONINTHEDESIGNOFANYBUILDINGTHEDESIGNOFAFOUNDATIONDEPENDSONMANYSOILFACTORS,SUCHASTYPEOFSOIL,SOILSTRATIFICATION,THICKNESSOFSOILLAVERSANDTHEIRCOMPACTION,ANDGROUNDWATERCONDITIONSSOILSRARELYHAVEASINGLECOMPOSITION；THEYGENERALLYAREMIXTURESINLAYERSOFVARYINGTHICKNESSFOREVALUATION,SOILSAREGRADEDACCORDINGTOPARTICLESIZE,WHICHINCREASESFROMSILTTOCLAYTOSANDTOGRAVELTOROCKINGENERAL,THELARGERPARTICLESOILSWILLSUPPORTHEAVIERLOADSTHANTHESMALLERONESTHEHARDESTROCKCANSUPPORTLOADSUPTO100TONSPERSQUAREFOOT9765METRICTONS/SQMETER,BUTTHESOFTESTSILTCANSUPPORTALOADOFONLY025TONPERSQUAREFOOT244METRICTONS/SQMETERALLSOILSBENEATHTHESURFACEAREINASTATEOFCOMPACTION；THATIS,THEYAREUNDERAPRESSURETHATISEQUALTOTHEWEIGHTOFTHESOILCOLUMNABOVEITMANYSOILSEXCEPTFORMOSTSANDSANDGAVELSEXHIBITELASTICPROPERTIESTHEYDEFORMWHENCOMPRESSEDUNDERLOADANDREBOUNDWHENTHELOADISREMOVEDTHEELASTICITYOFSOILSISOFTENTIMEDEPENDENT,THATIS,DEFORMATIONSOFTHESOILOCCUROVERALENGTHOFTIMEWHICHMAYVARYFROMMINUTESTOYEARSAFTERALOADISIMPOSEDOVERAPERIODOFTIME,ABUILDINGMAYSETTLEIFITIMPOSESALOADONTHESOILGREATERTHANTHENATURALCOMPACTIONWEIGHTOFTHESOILCONVERSELY,ABUILDINGMAYHEAVEIFITIMPOSESLOADSONTHESOILSMALLERTHANTHENATURALCOMPACTIONWEIGHTTHESOILMAYALSOFLOWUNDERTHEWEIGHTOFABUILDING；THATIS,ITTENDSTOBESQUEEZEDOUTDUETOBOTHTHECOMPACTIONANDFLOWEFFECTS,BUILDINGSTENDSETTLEUNEVENSETTLEMENTS,EXEMPLIFIEDBYTHELEANINGTOWERSINPISAANDBOLOGNA,CANHAVEDAMAGINGEFFECTSTHEBUILDINGMAYLEAN,WALLSANDPARTITIONSMAYCRACK,WINDOWSANDDOORSMAYBECOMEINOPERATIVE,AND,INTHEEXTREME,ABUILDINGMAYCOLLAPSEUNIFORMSETTLEMENTSARENOTSOSERIOUS,ALTHOUGHEXTREMECONDITIONS,SUCHASTHOSEINMEXICOCITY,CANHAVESERIOUSCONSEQUENCESOVERTHEPAST100YEARS,ACHANGEINTHEGROUNDWATERLEVELTHEREHASCAUSEDSOMEBUILDINGSTOSETTLEMORETHAN10FEET3METERSBECAUSESUCHMOVEMENTSCANOCCURDURINGANDAFTERCONSTRUCTION,CAREFULANALYSISOFTHEBEHAVIOROFSOILSUNDERABUILDINGISVITALTHEGREATVARIABILITYOFSOILSHASLEDTOAVARIETYOFSOLUTIONSTOTHEFOUNDATIONPROBLEMWHEREFIRMSOILEXISTSCLOSETOTHESURFACE,THESIMPLESTSOLUTIONISTORESTCOLUMNSONASMALLSLABOFCONCRETESPREADFOOTINGWHERETHESOILISSOFTER,ITISNECESSARYTOSPREADTHECOLUMNLOADOVERAGREATERAREA；INTHISCASE,ACONTINUOUSSLABOFCONCRETERAFTORMATUNDERTHEWHOLEBUILDINGISUSEDINCASESWHERETHESOILNEARTHESURFACEISUNABLETOSUPPORTTHEWEIGHTOFTHEBUILDING,PILESOFWOOD,STEEL,ORCONCRETEAREDRIVENDOWNTOFIRMSOILTHECONSTRUCTIONOFABUILDINGPROCEEDSNATURALLYFROMTHEFOUNDATIONUPTOTHESUPERSTRUCTURETHEDESIGNPROCESS,HOWEVER,PROCEEDSFROMTHEROOFDOWNTOTHEFOUNDATIONINTHEDIRECTIONOFGRAVITYINTHEPAST,THEFOUNDATIONWASNOTSUBJECTTOSYSTEMATICINVESTIGATIONASCIENTIFICAPPROACHTOTHEDESIGNOFFOUNDATIONSHASBEENDEVELOPEDINTHE20THCENTURYKARLTERZAGHIOFTHEUNITEDSTATESPIONEEREDSTUDIESTHATMADEITPOSSIBLETOMAKEACCURATEPREDICTIONSOFTHEBEHAVIOROFFOUNDATIONS,USINGTHESCIENCEOFSOILMECHANICSCOUPLEDWITHEXPLORATIONANDTESTINGPROCEDURESFOUNDATIONFAILURESOFTHEPAST,SUCHASTHECLASSICALEXAMPLEOFTHELEANINGTOWERINPISA,HAVEBECOMEALMOSTNONEXISTENTFOUNDATIONSSTILLAREAHIDDENBUTCOSTLYPARTOFMANYBUILDINGSALTHOUGHTHEREHAVEBEENMANYADVANCEMENTSINBUILDINGCONSTRUCTIONTECHNOLOGYINGENERAL,SPECTACULARACHIEVEMENTSHAVEBEENMADEINTHEDESIGNANDCONSTRUCTIONOFULTRAHIGHRISEBUILDINGSTHEEARLYDEVELOPMENTOFHIGHRISEBUILDINGSBEGANWITHSTRUCTURALSTEELFRAMINGREINFORCEDCONCRETEANDSTRESSEDSKINTUBESYSTEMSHAVESINCEBEENECONOMICALLYANDCOMPETITIVELYUSEDINANUMBEROFSTRUCTURESFORBOTHRESIDENTIALANDCOMMERCIALPURPOSESTHEHIGHRISEBUILDINGSRANGINGFROM50TO110STORIESTHATAREBEINGBUILTALLOVERTHEUNITEDSTATESARETHERESULTOFINNOVATIONSANDDEVELOPMENTOFNEWSTRUCTURALSYSTEMSGREATERHEIGHTENTAILSINCREASEDCOLUMNANDBEAMSIZESTOMAKEBUILDINGSMORERIGIDSOTHATUNDERWINDLOADTHEYWILLNOTSWAYBEYONDANACCEPTABLELIMITEXCESSIVELATERALSWAYMAYCAUSESERIOUSRECURRINGDAMAGETOPARTITIONS,CEILINGS,ANDOTHERARCHITECTURALDETAILSINADDITION,EXCESSIVESWAYMAYCAUSEDISCOMFORTTOTHEOCCUPANTSOFTHEBUILDINGBECAUSEOFTHEIRPERCEPTIONOFSUCHMOTIONSTRUCTURALSYSTEMSOFREINFORCEDCONCRETE,ASWELLASSTEEL,TAKEFULLADVANTAGEOFTHEINHERENTPOTENTIALSTIFFNESSOFTHETOTALBUILDINGANDTHEREFOREDONOTREQUIREADDITIONALSTIFFENINGTOLIMITTHESWAYINASTEELSTRUCTURE,FOREXAMPLE,THEECONOMYCANBEDEFINEDINTERMSOFTHETOTALAVERAGEQUANTITYOFSTEELPERSQUAREFOOTOFFLOORAREAOFTHEBUILDINGCURVEAINFIG1REPRESENTSTHEAVERAGEUNITWEIGHTOFACONVENTIONALFRAMEWITHINCREASINGNUMBERSOFSTORIESCURVEBREPRESENTSTHEAVERAGESTEELWEIGHTIFTHEFRAMEISPROTECTEDFROMALLLATERALLOADSTHEGAPBETWEENTHEUPPERBOUNDARYANDTHELOWERBOUNDARYREPRESENTSTHEPREMIUMFORALLLATERALLOADSTHEGAPBETWEENTHEUPPERBOUNDARYANDTHELOWERBOUNDARYREPRESENTSTHEPREMIUMFORHEIGHTFORTHETRADITIONALCOLUMNANDBEAMFRAMESTRUCTURALENGINEERSHAVEDEVELOPEDSTRUCTURALSYSTEMSWITHAVIEWTOELIMINATINGTHISPREMIUM7TUBEINTUBEANOTHERSYSTEMINREINFORCEDCONCRETEFOROFFICEBUILDINGSCOMBINESTHETRADITIONALSHEARWALLCONSTRUCTIONWITHANEXTERIORFRAMEDTUBETHESYSTEMCONSISTSOFANOUTERFRAMEDTUBEOFVERYCLOSELYSPACEDCOLUMNSANDANINTERIORRIGIDSHEARWALLTUBEENCLOSINGTHECENTRALSERVICEAREATHESYSTEMFIG2,KNOWNASTHETUBEINTUBESYSTEM,MADEITPOSSIBLETODESIGNTHEWORLDSPRESENTTALLEST714FTOR218MLIGHTWEIGHTCONCRETEBUILDINGTHE52STORYONESHELLPLAZABUILDINGINHOUSTONFORTHEUNITPRICEOFATRADITIONALSHEARWALLSTRUCTUREOFONLY35STORIESSYSTEMSCOMBININGBOTHCONCRETEANDSTEELHAVEALSOBEENDEVELOPED,ANEXAMPLEOFWHICHISTHECOMPOSITESYSTEMDEVELOPEDBYSKIDMORE,OWINGSMERRILLINWHICHANEXTERIORCLOSELYSPACEDFRAMEDTUBEINCONCRETEENVELOPSANINTERIORSTEELFRAMING,THEREBYCOMBININGTHEADVANTAGESOFBOTHREINFORCEDCONCRETEANDSTRUCTURALSTEELSYSTEMSTHESTORYONESHELLSQUAREBUILDINGINNEWORLEANSISBASEDONTHISSYSTEM出处土木工程专业英语，段兵廷主编，武汉理工大学出版社二、外文译文建筑的组成部分及高层结构1摘要材料和不同的结构形式联合组成建筑物的各种不同部分，包括承重框架，外壳，楼板和隔墙。建筑物也有像升降机，供暖和冷却，照明这样的与机械和电力有关的系统。上部结构是建筑物地面以上的部分，而下部结构和基础则是建筑物地面以下的部分。摩天大楼的出现得益于19世纪的两大发展钢骨架结构和旅客升降机。钢，作为一种建筑材料，源于1885年贝色麦转炉的引入。GUSTAVEEIFFEL（18321932）将钢结构引入法国。1889年巴黎展览会的塔和他为GALERIEDES机械的设计表现了钢结构的灵活性。艾菲尔铁塔高984英尺（300米），是人类建造的最高的结构，直到40年后才被美国一系列的摩天大楼超越。第一个升降机是在1857年被ELISHAOTIS安装于纽约的一幢百货公司。在1889年，EIFFEL在艾菲尔铁塔上安装了第一个大尺寸的升降机，它的水力升降机能在一个小时内运送2350个旅客到达顶点。2承重框架。直到19世纪晚期，建筑物外墙被用作支承楼板的承重墙。这种结构本质上一种梁柱模型，并且仍然被用于房屋框架结构。承重墙结构由于需要巨大的墙厚而限制了建筑物的高度。例如，芝加哥建于19世纪80年代16层的MONADNOCK大厦，较下层的楼板下的墙厚达5英尺（15米）。在1883年，WILLIAMLEBARONJENNEY18321907采用铸铁柱支撑楼板的方式以形成笼状结构。由钢梁和钢柱组成的骨架构造最早用于1889年。由于骨架构造，围墙变成一个“幕墙”，胜于起支撑作用。砖石一直被用作幕墙材料，直到20世纪30年代，轻金属和玻璃幕墙开始被使用。在钢结构引入后，建筑物的高度持续快速地增加。在二次世界大战前，所有的高层建筑都是采用钢结构。战后，钢材的短缺和混凝土质量的改良导致钢筋混凝土高层建筑的出现。芝加哥的MARINA塔1962是美国最高的混凝土建筑。它的高度达588英尺179米，被伦敦的高达650英尺（198米）的邮政大厦和其他塔式建筑所超越。关于摩天大楼构造观点的转变恢复了承重墙的使用。在纽约城由EEROSAARINEN于1962年设计的哥伦比亚广播系统大楼，有一个由5英尺（15米）宽，相邻柱的中心距为10英尺（3米）的混凝土柱组成的环形墙。这个环形墙实际上有效地组成了一个承重墙。产生这种趋向的一个理由是，采用建筑物的墙壁作为一个筒体，可以非常经济地获得起到抗风作用的足够硬度。世界贸易大厦是这种筒体方法的另一个例证。相反地，刚性框架或垂直的桁架通常被用于提供侧向稳定性。3外壳建筑物的外壳由透明元素（窗）和不透明元素（墙）所组成。尽管塑料正在被使用，窗传统上还是使用玻璃，特别是在学校，破损产生了一个维护问题。用于覆盖结构并由结构支撑的墙元素由多种材料建造砖，预制构件，混凝土，石，不透明玻璃，塑料，钢和铝。木主要被用于房屋建筑，由于有火灾的危险，它通常不用于商业，工业和公用建筑。4楼板建筑物中楼板的构造依赖于所使用的基本结构框架。在钢结构中，楼板或是搁置在钢梁上的混凝土板，或是表面附有混凝土的波状钢组成的凹板。在混凝土结构中，楼板或是搁置在混凝土梁上的混凝土板，或是一系列顶端有一个薄板双向都近距离排列的混凝土梁，在其下部提供了一个多余的空间。这种类型的板的使用依赖于支撑柱或墙间的跨度和空间的功能。例如，在公寓中，当墙和柱的间距在12英尺到18英尺（37米到55米），最常用的结构是无梁的实心混凝土板。这种板的下部可以用作其下层空间的天花板。办公大楼中常使用波纹钢楼板，这是因为波纹钢楼板的波纹当由另一块金属板盖上时，可以形成电话线和电线通道。5机械和电力系统一个现代建筑不仅包括它所需要的空间（办公室，教室，公寓），还包括帮助提供舒适环境的机械与电力系统的辅助空间。在摩天办公大楼中，这些辅助空间可能构成总建筑面积的25。在办公大楼中，供暖，通风，电力和卫生管道系统的重要性体现在工程预算的40被分配给它们。因为使用带有不能开窗的密封性建筑屋的增加，精细的机械系统被用于通风和空调。渠道和管道携带来自中央风扇室和空气调节机的新鲜空气。悬吊在上部楼板结构下面的天花板，隐藏着管道系统，还包含照明设备。用于动力和电话通讯的电力配线，也被安置在天花板空间内，或被埋置在楼板结构中的管道内。已经有种种尝试将机械和电力系统通过坦白地表达它们以合并到建筑物的建筑学中。举例来说，在爱荷华州首府得梅因的美国共和保险公司大楼（1965），管道和楼板结构以一种有组织和优雅的形式暴露在外，用吊顶进行分配。这种方法使得减少建筑物的花费成为可能，并且可以允许改革，例如在结构的跨度方面。6地基与基础所有的建筑物都支撑在地面上，因此，土体的性质成为任何建筑设计中极端重要的考虑因素。基础的设计依赖于许多土体的要素，如土的类型，土壤的层理，土层的厚度和它的压缩性，以及地下水的状态。土壤很少有一个单一的成分。它们通常是不同厚度土层的混合物。为了评估，土壤被按照颗粒大小分为不同等级，