《词汇学》教案

1、英语词汇学课程Chapter I The basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.1 What is a word?A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. 词是具有一定的声音、意义和语法功能，能独立运用的最小的语言单位。1.2 What is vocabulary?The total number of the words in a language. All the words used in

2、a particular historical period.All the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.1.3 Sound and meaningWhats the relationship between sound and meaning? Arbitrary, Conventional1.4 Sound and formWhat causes the differences between sound

3、and form?More morphemes than letters,Stabilization of spelling,Deliberate change of spelling by early, scribes for easier recognition,Borrowing of foreign words.1.5 Classification of words Criterion: by use frequency：Basic word stock，Non-basic vocabularyCriterion: by notion：Content words，Functional

4、wordsCriterion: by origin：Native words，Borrowed words1. Basic word stock and non-basic vocabulary基本词汇和非基本词汇Five basic features of the basic word stockAll national character全民性, Stability稳定性, Productivity能产性, Polysemy多义性, Collocability 搭配能力强Non-basic vocabularyTerminology专业术语, Jargon行话, Slang俚语, Argo

5、t隐语, Dialectal words方言词, Archaisms古语词, Neologisms新词语2. Content words and functional words 实义词和功能词Content words/Notional words/Lexical wordsConstitute the main body of the English vocabulary, numerous and the number is ever growingFunctional words/Empty/formwords/Grammatical wordsConstitute a very sm

6、all number of the vocabulary; stable3. Native words and borrowed words 本族语词和外来语词Native words / Angle-Saxon wordsThe features of native wordsBorrowed words/ loan words / borrowingsDenizens同化词Aliens 非同化词Translation-loans译借词Semantic loans 语义借词Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are we

7、ll assimilated into the English language. 同化词指早期借入, 其拼写和读音完全符合本族语词规范的借词。Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. 非同化词指拼写和读音保持原样的借词。Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the

8、patterns taken from another language. 翻译借词是利用英语中现有的语言材料但模仿另一种语言的模式而构成的词。Semantic loans are words borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language. 语义借词指受另一种语言中相关词语的影响而借进新义的词。Answer the following questions:What is a word?What are the characteristics of the basic word stock?What is the fund

9、amental difference between content and functional words?Chapter 2The Developmentof the English Vocabulary英语词汇的发展2.1 The Indo-European Language familyThe Indo-European language family is made up of most languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.The classification of Indo-European language family:

10、According to various degrees of similarity and theirgeographical distribution, the surviving languages of Indo-European language familyfall into 10 principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set and Western set.The Eastern set:Balto-Slavic波罗的斯拉夫语族(the biggest one); Prussian普鲁士语; Lithuani

11、an立陶宛语; Polish波兰语; Czech捷克语; Bulgarian保加利亚语; Slovenian斯洛文尼亚语; Russian俄罗斯语; Indo-Iranian印伊语族; Persian波斯语; Bengali 孟加拉语; Hindi 北印度语; Romany吉普赛语; Armenian亚美尼亚语族; Armenian; Albanian阿尔巴尼语族 The Western SetHellenic希腊语族; Greek; Celtic凯尔特语族; Scotish苏格兰语; Irish爱尔兰语; Welsh威尔士; Breton布列塔尼语; Pictish皮克特语; Hittite

12、希泰语族; Tocharian吐火罗语族; Italic意大利语族（5 romance languages）; Portuguese葡萄牙语; Spanish西班牙语; French法语; Italian意大利语; Rumanian罗马尼亚语; Germanic日耳曼族; English英语; German德语; Dutch荷兰语; Flemish弗来芒语; Scandinavian languages2.2 Three Phases of the Historical Development For each phase of the development, the following p

13、oints must be made clear: Time range Features of English Social and historical events that influenced English greatlyOld English (450-1150)Three questions for discussion:Who were the earliest inhabitants on the British Isles?What are included in Germanic tribes?What does England mean and why was the

14、 country called England and the language English?What is the feature of Old English?The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts.The Germanic tribes include Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. They were first allies of Celts to fight against Picts and Scots, but then they became new conquerors.Angl

15、es, Saxons and Jutes all have their dialects. The Saxons were numerically superior to the Angles, the latter were influential enough to impose their name on the whole.Old English are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian. It was a highly infl

16、ected language, of which nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs had complex systems of endings or vowel changes or both.Middle English (1150-1500)The Norman Conquest and its influence on England A new and larger continental culture was brought to England. It forced on England “The national

17、idea”.The situation of the simultaneous existence of three languages:English -French -Latin -Features: A period of great changes, changes more extensive and fundamental than those that had taken place at any time before and since. Steady erosion of the Old English inflectional systems: endings of no

18、uns and adjectives marking distinction of number and case and often of gender lost their distinctive forms.Modern English (1500 up to the present)A comparison of three phases2.3 General CharacteristicsReceptivity, adaptability and heterogeneity Variety, heterogeneousness with foreign elements Simpli

19、city of inflection: Old English is a synthetic language Modern English is a analytic language Relatively fixed word-order2.4 Foreign Elements in the English VocabularyThe major contributors to English are Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian.The students are asked to study this part by themselves a

20、nd get to know the major foreign elements that contributed to the development of English.2.5 Growth of Contemporary English VocabularyThree main sources of new words:Rapid development of modern science and languagesSocial, economic and political changesThe influence of other cultures and languages2.

21、6 Modes of Vocabulary DevelopmentCreationThe formation of new words by using the existing materialsSemantic changeAn old form takes on a new meaningBorrowing:Borrowed words constitute six to seven percent of all new words.Questions:Why should students of English lexicology study the Indo-European La

22、nguage Family?What characteristics of English make the English language heterogeneous?Account for the popularity of English in the present world from a linguistic perspective.Describe the characteristics of contemporary vocabulary.What are the major modes of vocabulary development in contemporary En

23、glish?Chapter 3 Morphological structure of English words1. MorphemeWhat is a morpheme？It is the minimal meaningful unit of language. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 语素是最小的有意义的单位。它是语言中最小的构词单位2. Morph and allomorphThe definition of morphs：The phonetic or orthographi

24、c strings or segments which realize morphemes are termed morphs. 语素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素。Morphs are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning. 形素是口语中最小的意义载体。What is an allomorph?An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme. 语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。When the plural marker s is added to cat, dog, and h

25、orse, it is pronounceddifferently as /-s, -z, -iz/ and thus has three phonological forms; the three forms are just the variants of the same morpheme s, i.e. the allomorphs of morpheme s.3. Classifications of morphemesFree vs. bound morphemes in terms of their capacity of occurring aloneDerivational

26、vs. inflectionalmorphemes applying to affixes onlyContent / lexical vs. grammatical morpheme on a semantic and syntactic basisFree vs. bound morphemes 自由语素与粘着语素Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free gra

27、mmatical units in sentences. 自由语素是能独立运用的语素，它有完整的意义，在句中充当一个自由的语法单位。E.g., man, wind, open, tourMorphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function. 粘着语素不能独立成词，只能依附于其他语素上以构成词或担当一定的语法功能。 Free morphemes

28、are all roots /free roots, which are capable of being used as words or as word-building elements to form new words. 自由语素都是词根, 也叫自由词根, 能用作词或作为构成新词的构词要素。 Bound morphemes consist of either roots (bound roots) or affixes. 粘着语素包括词根（粘着词根）和词缀。 E.g., bound root: -dict-, -ced- affix: -ion, -ist, -icA multitu

29、de of words made up of merely bound morphemes, eg: ante-ced-ent. -ced- 是词根，接近，ante- 是前缀，在前，-ent 是后缀，人，物，Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes派生语素与屈折语素What are derivational and inflectional morphemes?Derivational morphemes are used to derive new words when they are added to another morpheme. In Eng

30、lish derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes. 派生语素附着于其它语素可派生出新词。英语中派生词和合成词都是由这样的语素构成的。Inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. 屈折语素作为语法标记表示词的语法意义，屈折语素只限于词缀。Whats

31、the difference between them?InflectionalDoesnt change meaning or part of speech of the stem. (workworks)Indicates syntactic relations between different words in a sentence. ( grammatical meaning)Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.Occurs at margins of words. (radioradios)Derivat

32、ionalChanges meaning or part of speech of the stem.( like-dislike, sleepasleep)Indicates semantic relations within the word. (specific lexical meaning，e.g., un-)Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemesOccurs before any inflectional suffixes added. Content / lexical vs. grammatical morph

33、emesLexical 词汇/ content实义morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words (blackbird is coined on the basis of 2 lexical morphemes: black and bird.), and derivational morphemes such as ship, -ize.Grammatical morphemes function primarily as grammatical markers. They

34、 encompass both inflectional affixes(-books) and free morphemes ( in, and, do, have, theyfunctional words)3.4 Identifying MorphemesHow to identify morphemes?They should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution. e.g.,mono-morphemic: skydouble-morphemic: chill + y, boy + ishtriple-morp

35、hemic: un+dress+ed, care+less+nessfour-morphemic: un+fruit+ful+nessover-four-morphemic: un+gentle+man+li+nessIn what situation do morphemes mismatchbetween form and meaning?1) Inconsistent in form and meaning: singer ( one who)er clearer ( the comparative degree) eraser (one object)2) Meaningless in

36、 isolation but meaningful in some words cran- huckle- berry boysen-3) Difficult to define the meaning -ceivein conceive/perceive/receive3.5 Morpheme and Word-formationIn word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix. 在构词法中, 语素被分为词根、词干、词基和词缀。AffixAffixes are forms that are attached

37、 to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes. 词缀都是粘着语素，依附在词根上构成新词或表示词的语法意义。Two types of affixes:Inflectional affixes and Derivational affixes 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to indicate the syntactic relationships between w

38、ords and function as grammatical markers. 表示词的语法意义的是屈折词缀。They express the following meanings:Plurality名词复数The genitive case 名词所有格The comparative and superlative degrees形容词/副词比较级、最高级 The verbal endings动词词尾变化e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes; -en in oxen；e.g. s in boys, childrense.g. -er

39、 in words like smaller; -est in words like smallest.a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person singular present tense. b. -ing in words like eating, shows the presentparticiple or gerund.c. -(e)d in words like worked shows the past tense or pastparticiple.Derivational affixes or der

40、ivational morphemes They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root. e.g.: unjust, rewrite.As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.(2) Suffixes are affixes after the rootBy the addition of the suffix, the wor

41、d isusually changed from one part of speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.Root, stem, base词根、词干、词基A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. 词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。A stem is that part of the word-form which remains

42、when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。A base refers to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem. 词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。它与词根有区别，因为它是可以从派生角度进行分析的形式，在上面可以加上派生词缀。但是词根则不容许做进一步的分析。词基与词干也是不同的，因为派生词缀和屈折词缀都可

43、以加在词基上，而只有屈折词缀可以加在词干上。Task: Analyze the word in terms of root, stem and base.1. desire (v.): 是词根（不可再分解），是词干（可以加屈折词缀，如过去时态-ed），是词基。2. desirable (adj.): 不是词根（可再分解）；不是词干（不可以加屈折词缀），是词基（既可以加词缀，又能再分解下去）。3. undesirable (n.): 不是词根（可再分解）；是词干（可以加屈折词缀，如名词复数-s），也是词基。Answer the question:What is the difference be

44、tween grammatical and lexical morphemes, and inflectional and derivational morphemes? Give examples to illustrate their relationships.Chapter Four Word Formation 构词法(I)4.1 Affixation/derivationAffixation falls into two categories: prefixation and suffixation and the differences between them are just

45、 the differences between prefixes and suffixes.Classification of prefixesThe major prefixes can be classified into 10 categories by their meaning.Negative Prefixes否定前缀Reversative or privative prefixes逆反前缀Pejorative prefixes贬义前缀Prefixes of degree or size表范围和程度的前缀Prefixes of orientation and attitude表方

46、向和态度的前缀Locative prefixes方位前缀Prefixes of time and order表时间和顺序的前缀Number prefixes数字前缀Conversion prefixes转化前缀Miscellaneous prefixes其他类型的前缀2. Suffixation Question:Why is the classification of suffixes different from the classification of prefixes? Prefixes primarily function as a semantic modification of

47、 the base, while suffixes have only a small semantic role and their primary function are to change the grammatical function of the base. Prefixes are classified on a semantic basis and suffixes on a grammatical basis Types of suffixesNoun suffixesAdjective suffixesVerb suffixesAdverbs suffixesSome s

48、uffixes, when added to bases related to human beings or nationality names, yield words that can be used both as nouns and adjectives. -ese: Chinese; Lebanese; officialese -an, -ian: Australian, Cambodian -ist: racist, socialist -ite: Chomskyite, Thatcherite4.2 Compounding复合法The definition of compoun

49、ding and compoundCharacteristics of compoundsPhonological featuresSemantic featuresGrammatical featuresOrthographical features3. Formation of CompoundsNoun compoundsAdjective compounds Verb compoundsThrough conversion: nickname; first-nameThrough backformation: lip-readingto lip-read; chain-smoker t

50、o chain-smoke4.3 Conversion 转化法Question:What is conversion? Why is it called zero-derivation?change of word-class; functional shiftderivation process without the addition of an affixTypes of ConversionConversion to NounsConversion to VerbsConversion to AdjectivesWords produced by conversion are prim

51、arily nouns, adjectives and verbs, among which the conversion between nouns and verbs are the most productive.4.3.1 Conversion to nouns1) Deverbal （由动词转化而来的名词）Almost all monomorphemic (单语素结构的)verbs can be used as nouns，which are semantically related to the original verbs in various ways.State (of mi

52、nd or sensation) (doubt; want; desire)Event or activity( search; laugh; teach-in)Result of the action (catch; find, answer)Doer of the action( help; cheat, bore)Tool or instrument to do the action with (cover; wrap)Place of the action (pass; walk; divide)2) De-adjectival 由形容词转化成的名词Full conversion完全转

53、换:A noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns. It can take an indefinite article or (e)s to indicate singular or plural number.Partial conversion 部分转换Nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does.They must be used together wi

54、th definite articles as nouns while retaining some of the adjective features. The gradable adjectives can keep their comparative or superlative degrees.Words in this category generally denote a group of the kind.3). Miscellaneous conversion 其他类型的转换Nouns converted from other classesas conjunctions, m

55、odals, finite verbs, prepositions, etc.Conversion to verbsThe use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Three kinds of conversion to verbsDenominal: to pocket the money; the nurse the babyDe-adjectival: The photograph yellowed with age.Miscellaneous conversion: The students tut-tut the

56、idea.Conversion to adjectivesIt occurs mostlybetween nouns and adjectives.构词法(II) Less productive Word-formationTo understand and grasp the definition of the following terms and their features in forming new words: blending; clipping; acronymy; backformation; sound reduplication; commonization of proper names.4.4Blending拼缀法Task: Point out how the following words are made.Smog, Sci-fi, Airtel, Medicare, skylabsmog（smoke+ fog）fog intensified by smoke sci-fi (science + fiction) of, relating to, or being science fictionairtel (air + hotel) hotel situated at or clo