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1、Structure and impacts of fuel economy standards for passenger cars in China David Vance Wagner?, Feng An, Cheng Wang The Innovation Center for Energy and Transportation, Room 1904, e-Tower Building, No. C12 Guanghua Rd., Chaoyang District, Beijing 100020, China a r t i c l e i n f o Article history:

2、 Received 28 May 2009 Accepted 15 July 2009 Available online 8 August 2009 Keywords: China Fuel economy Passenger cars a b s t r a c t By the end of 2006, there were about 24 million total passenger cars on the roads in China, nearly three times as many as in 2001. To slow the increase in energy con

3、sumption by these cars, China began implementing passenger car fuel economy standards in two phases beginning in 2005. Phase 1 fuel consumption limits resulted in a sales-weighted new passenger car average fuel consumption decrease of about 11%, from just over 9l/100km to approximately 8l/100km, fro

4、m 2002 to 2006. However, we project that upon completion of Phase 2 limits in 2009, the average fuel consumption of new passenger cars in China may drop only by an additional 1%, to approximately 7.9l/100km. This is due to the fact that a majority of cars sold in 2006 already meets the stricter seco

5、nd phase fuel consumption limits. Simultaneously, other trends in the Chinese vehicle market, including increases in average curb weight and increases in standards-exempt imported vehicles, threaten to offset the effi ciency gains achieved from 2002 to 2006. It is clear that additional efforts and p

6、olicies beyond Phase 2 fuel consumption limits are required to slow and, ultimately, reverse the trend of rapidly rising energy consumption and greenhouse gases from Chinas transportation sector. these are shown in Table 1. All vehicle fuel economy regulations in China, including current and future

7、passenger vehicle fuel economy standards as well as commercial vehicle regulations, are based on the categorizations shown in Table 1. However, vehicles in China are additionally classifi ed according to a slightly different classifi cation system dictated by the Ministry of Public Security. These c

8、lassifi cations are used both for offi cial statistical reporting by the National Bureau of Statistics as well as for administrative management, e.g. licensing. Under this system, highway vehicles are categorized as passenger ARTICLE IN PRESS Contents lists available at ScienceDirect journal homepag

9、e: Energy Policy 0301-4215/$-see front matter fax: +861065857394. E-mail addresses: , (D.V. Wagner). Energy Policy 37 (2009) 38033811 ARTICLE IN PRESS vehicles, trucks, or others. Among passenger vehicles, vehicles are further classifi ed by size as large, medium, small, or minicar. This classifi ca

10、tion system is shown in Table 2 (MPS, 2008). From Tables 1 and 2, it can be inferred that M1-type vehicles, including M1G, are either small or minicar passenger vehicles. In this report, we consistently use the term passenger car to refer to all vehicles with nine or fewer seats designed primarily f

11、or carrying passengers. This refers to all M1 and M1G-type vehicles as defi ned by the Standardization Administration of China, which is same as all small and minicar passenger vehicles as defi ned by the Ministry of Public Security. The term includes MPVs and SUVs. 2.2. Historical vehicle populatio

12、n growth The National Bureau of Statistics of China publishes annual data on the possession of civil vehicles in China (CSY, 2007). As describedpreviously,vehiclesarecategorizedaspassenger vehicles, trucks, or others. Data is given both for total possession of civil vehicles as well as for private v

13、ehicles, a subset of civil vehicles. Among passenger vehicles, beginning in 2002, vehicles are further classifi ed by size as large, medium, small, or minicar. Passenger vehicle size defi nitions were given previously in Table 2. According to the defi nitions in Table 2, we calculate the possession

14、of passenger cars in China as the sum of the small and minicar data for each year. Prior to 2001, though cars are not separated out from passenger vehicles in offi cial statistics, for the purposes of this analysis we have roughly approximated car possession by assuming 85% of all civil passenger ve

15、hicles are passenger cars, and 90% of all private passenger vehicles are private passenger cars. These percentages are rough extrapola- tions based on the fi gures shown in Table 3. The growth of on-road vehicles by selected categories in China is shown in Fig.1. By the end of 2006, there were nearl

16、y 24 million total passenger cars on the roads in China, nearly three times as many as in 2001. Though Fig. 1 shows tremendous growth in possession of all types of vehicles, the growth of private passenger cars is particularly remarkable. In 1990, there were less than 250,000 private passenger vehic

17、les (of all sizes) in China; by 2006, there were over 17.5 million private passenger cars alone. Accordingly, the growth of total on-road vehicles has been increasingly fueled by the growth of private passenger cars. This can be seen from Fig. 2, showing the percentage growth in overall on-road vehi

18、cles coming from various vehicle types. In 2006, 80% of the growth of on-road vehicles came from the growth of private passenger cars; in 2000, it was just 35% of total growth. The increasing importance of private passenger cars in China is no surprise. As Chinas per capita GDP has risen, so has dem

19、and and ownership of vehicles, echoing a common trend around the world (Ng and Schipper, 2005). In 2006, there were approximately 18 passenger cars per 1000 people in China, 14 of which were privately owned. Though these ownership rates are signifi cantly smaller than those of developed countries pa

20、ssenger car ownership in the United States being above 800 per 1000 people (Ellis et al., 2008) the recent, rapid rise of vehicle ownership in China is a major source of concern with respect to the current and future energy, environmental, and social impacts of Chinas passenger car fl eet. 2.3. Pass

21、enger car population projections Chinese passenger car population projections considering various different growth scenarios were recently made by Wang et al. (2006) and Ng and Schipper (2005). These projections are shown in Fig. 3. Wang et al. projected Chinas passenger car population to equal that

22、 currently in the United States by just after 2030, while Ng and Schipper projected faster growth. Though projecting future passenger car population is beyond the scope of this paper, it is worth noting that, due to higher-than- expected growth rates of all areas of the Chinese economy, including th

23、e automotive sector, projections of future vehicle population from even just a few years ago are already outdated. Because Chinese passenger vehicle growth rates from 2003 to 2006 were 26%, 19%, 25%, and 25%, respectively, the 2006 population of passenger cars in China, 24 million, is already almost

24、 equal to the 2010 estimate in most of Wang et al. and Schipper and Ngs projections. This may be seen in Fig. 4. 2.4. Vehicle energy consumption and CO2emissions Chinas rapid economic growth has demanded more and more energy from all sources and for all sectors. Although Chinas offi cial energy stat

25、istics do not report specifi c energy consump- tion by the complete transportation sector, a recent report by the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research Heidelberg estimatedthat,in2003,Chinastransportationsectorwas responsible for 17% of total national energy consumption (Kn orr and D unneb

26、eil, 2008). This is still signifi cantly lower than that of Europe, for which the transportation sector uses 27% of total Table 1 Chinese vehicle classifi cations defi ned by the Standardization Administration of China. Classifi cation Defi nition M1Passenger vehicle with 9 or fewer seats M1GSUV wit

27、h 9 or fewer seats M2Passenger vehicle with more than 9 seats and with curb weight less than or equal to 5000kg M3Passenger vehicle with more than 9 seats and curb weight above 5000kg N1-3Vehicle used for transporting goods Table 2 Chinese passenger vehicle size classifi cations defi ned by the Mini

28、stry of Public Security and used by the National Bureau of Statistics. China vehicle size classifi cation Defi nition Passenger Vehicles MinicarVehicle shorter than 3.5m and with an engine capacity of 1l or less SmallVehicle shorter than 6m with 9 or fewer seats MediumVehicle shorter than 6m and hol

29、ding 1019 people LargeVehicle longer than 6m or holding 20 or more people Table 3 Percentages of passenger vehicles in China that are passenger cars (calculated from CSY, 2007, and our estimates). Year(s)Civil passenger cars as percentage of civil passenger vehicles (%) Private passenger cars as per

30、centage of private passenger vehicles (%) 1990200185 (estimate)90 (estimate) 20028593 20038794 20048895 20059096 20069196 D.V. Wagner et al. / Energy Policy 37 (2009) 380338113804 ARTICLE IN PRESS energy consumed (Kn orr and D unnebeil, 2008). However, this percentage is likely to grow as Chinas aut

31、omobile industry continues to grow and as other industries improve effi ciency. The Chinese government is particularly driven to limit energy use by the transportation sector because this sector is one of the major consumers of petroleum in the country. As a result of rising petroleum demand coupled

32、 with limited domestic supply, China became a net importer of petroleum in 1993. As shown in Fig. 5, Chinas petroleum import percentage has grown ever since, reaching 50% in 2006 (CSY, 2007). Because Chinas on-road transportation vehicles are fueled almost exclusively by gasoline and diesel, much of

33、 the rapid growth of petroleum consumption in China can be linked to the growth of on-road transportation vehicles. CATARC data indicate that, in 2006, motor vehicles consumed 86.4% of all gasoline consumed in China and 24.1% of all diesel (CATARC, 2007b). Controlling petroleum consumption by this s

34、ector is a critical goal for China in order to slow the growth in its oil dependence. Though Chinas current energy saving policies primarily target energy security, there is increasing pressure internationally and domestic recognition of the need for China to slow the growth of its CO2emissions. Thi

35、s is especially true now that China is thought to be the worlds largest emitter of greenhouse gases (Rosenthal, 2008). Within the transportation sector, the increased use of petro- leum has led to a corresponding increase in CO2emissions from on-road transportation. Wang et al. estimate that, as ear

36、ly as 2028, Chinas total on-road CO2emissions could match those of the United States in 2004 (Wang et al., 2006). However, this may even be a low estimate due to higher-than-expected growth, as mentioned previously. 0 5,000,000 10,000,000 15,000,000 20,000,000 25,000,000 30,000,000 35,000,000 40,000

37、,000 1978 Year Number of Vehicles Total On-Road Civil Vehicles in China (not incl motorcycles) Total Civil Passenger Cars in China Total Private Passenger Cars in China Total Civil Trucks in China 19831988199319982003 Fig. 1. Possession of civil vehicles in China, by type, 19782006. Solid lines show

38、 data from the China National Bureau of Statistics (CSY, 2007). Dotted lines show our estimates. 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 2000 Year Private Passenger Cars Non-Private Passenger Cars Trucks Other Vehicles 200120022003200420052006 Fig. 2. Percentage growth in overall on-road vehicle

39、s coming from various vehicle types. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 2000 Year Number of Cars, millions Wang et al Low Growth Scenario Wang el al Mid Growth Scenario Wang et al High Growth Scenario Ng and Schipper Baseline Scenario Ng and Schipper Oil Saved Scenario Ng and Schipper Integrated Transport Sc

40、enario Approximate Current US Car Population 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 Fig. 3. Recent Chinese passenger car population projections. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1985 Year Number of Cars, millions Wang et al Low Growth Scenario Wang el al Mid Growth Scenario Wang et al Hig

41、h Growth Scenario Ng and Schipper Baseline Scenario Ng and Schipper Oil Saved Scenario Ng and Schipper Integrated Transport Scenario Actual Population Data 1990199520002005201020152020 Fig. 4. Chinese passenger car population projections compared with actual population growth. Note that 2006 real pa

42、ssenger car population is already greater than 2010 population estimates in most of the projections. D.V. Wagner et al. / Energy Policy 37 (2009) 380338113805 ARTICLE IN PRESS Within the Chinese transportation sector, trucks are the largest consumers of energy and emitters of CO2. Wang et al. estima

43、te that cars in 2000 only consumed 9% of the transportation sectors total oil consumption.1He et al. estimate that in 2002, cars accounted for only about 16% of oil consumption by Chinas transportation sector (He et al., 2005). However, cars were the fi rst sub-sector of transportation targetedbythe

44、Chinesegovernmentforfuelconsumption regulation for two reasons. First, as we have seen, the proportion- ally faster growth of cars as compared with other types of vehicles means CO2emissions from cars as a percentage of transport sector emissions will certainly grow. Indeed, Wang et al.s projections

45、 show an increasing share of oil consumption from motor vehicles coming from cars; the percentage of motor vehicle oil consump- tion by cars rises from 9% in 2000 to 17% in 2010, then up to 2829% by 2030.2The second reason Chinese policy makers targeted cars initially for fuel consumption regulation

46、 is that there is stronger international precedent for regulating fuel consump- tion by passenger cars than for commercial vehicles, as the commercial vehicle sector tends to self-limit fuel consumption for economic reasons.3 Wang et al.s oil consumption projection fi gures are given in million metr

47、ic tons (MMT) oil. After applying a simple conversion factor,4highest and lowest growth scenario projections for CO2 emissions from Chinese passenger cars are shown in Fig. 6. Under the highest growth scenario, CO2emissions from passenger cars in China would exceed one billion tons by 2050. 3. Struc

48、ture of Chinese passenger vehicle fuel consumption standards Rapidly growing passenger vehicle fl eet oil consumption and CO2emissions led China in 2004 to adopt National Standard GB 19578-2004, Limits of Fuel Consumption for Passenger Cars (SAC, 2004). Though these standards are primarily designed

49、to help mitigate Chinas increasing dependence on foreign oil, other objectives include encouraging foreign manufacturers to bring state-of-the-art, effi cient vehicle technologies to the Chinese market and squeezing out small and less competent domestic manufacturers. The standard establishes maximu

50、m allowable fuel consump- tion limits for vehicles divided into 16 weight classes. The standards are implemented in two phases. Phase 1 was imple- mented on July 1st, 2005, for new models, and July 1st, 2006, for continued models; Phase 2 was implemented on January 1st, 2008, for new models, and wil

51、l be implemented January 1st, 2009, for continued models. Vehicles are tested using the New European Drive Cycle (NEDC). The 16 weight classes range from less then 7503500kg. The standards cover M1 and M1G-type vehicles, including passenger cars, SUVs, and multi-purpose vans (MPVs). Within each weig

52、ht class, vehicles are additionally sub-divided into two categories. Vehicles with special structures are defi ned as those that meet one of three criteria: (a) have automatic transmission; (b) have three or more rows of seats; (c) are of the type M1G (SUVs). If a vehicle meets all the three criteri

53、a, it is granted a 6% exemption of the limits. For simplicity, this paper will label the two groups as MT (manual transmission) and AT/SUV (automatic transmission and/or SUV). One distinctive feature of the Chinese standards is that, rather than being based on fl eet average, they establish maximum

54、allowable fuel consumption limits by weight category. China chose a weight-based limit-value approach for more practical as opposed to theoretical reasons. During the time of the creation of the fuel consumption standards, the Chinese car market was highly fragmented, with over one hundred manufactu

55、rers. There were very few multiple-line manufacturers; many manufacturers offered only one or two models, thus making the fl eet average approach meaningless. Additionally, vehicle sales fi gures in China have been historically secret, unknown, and/or diffi cult to obtain, making a sales-weighted av

56、erage approach unpractical. The weight classifi cation is based on EU emission testing protocol, with more stringent requirements on heavier models; this is designed to curb large vehicle and SUV growth in China. Another unique feature of the Chinese fuel economy standards is that every vehicle manu

57、factured in China is required to meet the standard for its weight class. There are neither exceptions nor a credit system to allow vehicles that exceed compliance to offset those that do not. The Chinese passenger car fuel consumption limits are shown in Table 4 and graphed in Fig. 7. Using a method

58、ology to standardize drive cycles, a recent report by An et al. noted that Chinas passenger car fuel economy standards are more stringent than those in other developed nations, including the United States, Canada, South Korea, and Australia, although not as stringent as the fuel economy standards in

59、 Europe and Japan (An et al., 2007). 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 1976 Year Quantity, 10,000 tons sce Total Crude Oil Production Total Crude Oil Consumption 198119861991199620012006 Fig. 5. Chinas total crude oil production and consumption from 1978 to 2006. 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 2000 Year Million tons CO2 Emissions Wang et al lowest growth scenario Wang et al highest growth scenario 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 Fig. 6. Projections of CO2emissions from Chinas passenger cars, converted from oil consumption fi gures. 1 Estimated from Wang et al. oil consum