土木工程外文翻译9

1、 introduction to civil engineering paperscivil engineering for the development of a key role, first as a material foundation for the civil engineering construction materials, followed by the subsequent development of the design theory and construction technology. every time a new quality of building

2、 materials, civil engineering will be a leap-style development. people can only rely on the early earth, wood and other natural materials in the construction activities, and later appeared in brick and tile that artificial materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural building

3、materials. china in the eleventh century bc in the early western zhou dynasty created the tile. the first brick in the fifth century bc to the third century bc, when the tomb of the warring states period. brick and tile better than the mechanical properties of soil, materials, and easy to manufactur

4、e. the brick and tile so that people began to appear widely, to a large number of housing construction and urban flood control project, and so on. this civil engineering technology has been rapid development. up to 18 to the 19th century, as long as two thousand years, brick and tile has been a majo

5、r civil engineering construction materials, human civilization has made a great contribution to the even was also widely used in the present. the application of a large number of steel products is the second leap in civil engineering. seventeen 1970s the use of pig iron, the early nineteenth century

6、, the use of wrought iron bridges and the construction of housing, which is a prelude to the emergence of steel. from the beginning of the mid-nineteenth century, metallurgical industry, smelting and rolling out high tensile and compressive strength, ductility, uniformity of the quality of construct

7、ion steel and then produce high-strength steel wire, steel cables. as a result of the need to adapt to the development of the steel structure have been flourishing. in addition to the application of the original beam, arch structure, the new truss, a framework, the structure of network, cable struct

8、ures to promote the gradual emergence of the structure of yan in the form of flowers. from the brick building long-span structures, stone structures, a few meters of wood, steel structure to the development of tens of meters, a few hundred meters, until modern km above. so in the river, cross the br

9、idge from shelves, on the ground since the construction of skyscrapers and high-rise tower, even in the laying of underground railway, to create an unprecedented miracle. in order to meet the needs of the development of steel works, on the basis of newtons mechanics, material mechanics, structural m

10、echanics, structural engineering design theory came into being, and so on. construction machinery, construction technology and construction organization design theory also development, civil engineering from the experience of rising to become science, engineering practice and theoretical basis for b

11、oth is a different place, which led to more rapid development of civil engineering. during the nineteenth century, 20, made of portland cement, concrete has come out. concrete can aggregate materials, easy-to-concrete structures forming, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, limited us

12、e. by the middle of the nineteenth century, the surge in steel production, with the emergence of this new type of reinforced concrete composite construction materials, which bear the tension steel, concrete bear the pressure and play their own advantages. since the beginning of the 20th century, rei

13、nforced concrete is widely used in various fields of civil engineering. from the beginning of the 1930s, there have been pre-stressed concrete. pre-stressed concrete structure of the crack resistance, rigidity and carrying capacity, much higher than the reinforced concrete structure, which uses an e

14、ven wider area. civil engineering into the reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete dominant historical period. concrete buildings to bring about the emergence of new economic, aesthetic structure in the form of engineering, civil engineering so that a new construction technology and engineering

15、 design of the structure of the theory. this is another leap in the development of civil engineering. the characteristics of civil engineering a project to build the facilities in general to go through the investigation, design and construction in three stages, require the use of geological prospect

16、ing projects, hydro-geological survey, engineering survey, soil mechanics, mechanical engineering, engineering design, building materials, construction equipment, engineering machinery, building the economy , and other disciplines and construction technology, construction and other fields of knowled

17、ge, as well as computer and mechanical testing techniques. civil engineering is therefore a broad range of integrated disciplines. with the progress in science and technology development and engineering practice, the civil engineering disciplines have also been developed into a broad connotation, th

18、e number of categories, the structure of complex integrated system. civil engineering is accompanied by the development of human society developed. it works in the construction of facilities reflect the various historical periods of socio-economic, cultural, scientific, technological development out

19、look, which civil society has become one of the historical development of the witness. in ancient times, people began to build simple houses, roads, bridges and still water channel to meet the simple life and production. later, in order to adapt to the war, production and dissemination of religious

20、life, as well as the needs of the construction of the city, canals, palaces, temples and other buildings. many well-known works shown in this historical period of human creativity. for example, the great wall of china, dujiangyan, the grand canal, zhaozhou bridge, yingxian wooden tower, the pyramids

21、 of egypt, greeces parthenon, romes water supply project, colosseum amphitheater (rome large animal fighting field), as well as many other well-known churches, palaces and so on. after the industrial revolution, especially in the 20th century, on the one hand, civil society to put forward a new dema

22、nd; on the other hand, all areas of society for the advancement of civil engineering to create good conditions. thus this period of civil engineering has been advanced by leaps and bounds. all over the world there have been large-scale modernization of industrial plants, skyscrapers, nuclear power p

23、lants, highways and railways, long-span bridges, and large-diameter pipelines long tunnel, the grand canal, the big dams, airports, port and marine engineering, etc. . for civil engineering continually modern human society to create a new physical environment, human society, modern civilization has

24、become an important part. civil engineering is a very practical subjects. in the early days, through the civil engineering practice, summing up successful experience, in particular, to draw lessons from the failure of developed. from the beginning of the 17th century, with galileo and newton as a pi

25、lot with the mechanics of the modern civil engineering practice, gradually formed the mechanical, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, rock mechanics, civil engineering as the basis of theoretical subjects. this experience in civil engineering from the gradually developed into a science. in the co

26、urse of the development of civil engineering, engineering practice often first experience in theory, engineering accidents often show a new unforeseen factors, triggering a new theory of the research and development. so far a number of projects dealing with the problem, is still very much rely on pr

27、actical experience. civil engineering technology with the main reason for the development of engineering practice and not by virtue of scientific experiments and theoretical studies, for two reasons: first, some of the objective situation is too complicated and difficult to faithfully carry out labo

28、ratory or field testing and analysis. for example, the foundation, tunnel and underground engineering and deformation of the state and its changes over time, still need to refer to an analysis of engineering experience to judge. second, only a new engineering practice in order to reveal new problems

29、. for example, the construction of a high-rise buildings, high-rise tower and mast-span bridges, wind and earthquake engineering problems highlighted in order to develop this new theory and technology. in the long-term civil engineering practice, it is not only building great attention to the arts,

30、has made outstanding achievements; and other works, but also through the choice of different materials, such as the use of stone, steel and reinforced concrete, with natural environmental art in the construction of a number of very beautiful, very functional and good works. ancient great wall of chi

31、na, the modern world, many of the television tower and the bridge ramp zhang, are cases in point.土木工程简介对土木工程的发展起关键作用的，首先是作为工程物质基础的土木建筑材料，其次是随之发展起来的设计理论和施工技术。每当出现新的优良的建筑材料时，土木工程就 会有飞跃式的发展。 人们在早期只能依靠泥土、木料及其它天然材料从事营造活动，后来出现了砖和瓦这种人工建筑材料，使人类第一次冲破了天然建筑材料的束缚。中国在公元前十一世纪 的西周初期制造出瓦。最早的砖出现在公元前五世纪至公元前三世纪战国时的墓室中

32、。砖和瓦具有比土更优越的力学性能，可以就地取材，而又易于加工制作。 砖和瓦的出现使人们开始广泛地、大量地修建房屋和城防工程等。由此土木工程技术得到了飞速的发展。直至1819世纪，在长达两千多年时间里，砖和瓦一直是土木工程的重要建筑材料，为人类文明作出了伟大的贡献，甚至在目前还被广泛采用。 钢材的大量应用是土木工程的第二次飞跃。 十七世纪70年代开始使用生铁、十九世纪初开始使用熟铁建造桥梁和房屋，这是钢结构出现的前奏。 从十九世纪中叶开始，冶金业冶炼并轧制出抗拉和抗压强度都很高、延性好、质量均匀的建筑钢材，随后又生产出高强度钢丝、钢索 。于是适应发展需要的钢结构得到蓬勃发展。除应用原有的粱、拱结

33、构外，新兴的桁架、框架、网架结构、悬索结构逐渐推广，出现了结构形式百花争艳的局面。 建筑物跨径从砖结构、石结构、木结构的几米、几十米发展到钢结构的百米、几百米，直到现代的千米以上。于是在大江、海峡上架起大桥，在地面上建造起摩天大楼和高耸铁塔，甚至在地面下铺设铁路，创造出前所未有的奇迹。 为适应钢结构工程发展的需要，在牛顿力学的基础上，材料力学、结构力学、工程结构设计理论等就应运而生。施工机械、施工技术和施工组织设计的理论也随之发展，土木工程从经验上升成为科学，在工程实践和基础理论方面都面貌一新，从而促成了土木工程更迅速的发展。 十九世纪20年代，波特兰水泥制成后，混凝土问世了。混凝土骨料可以就

34、地取材，混凝土构件易于成型，但混凝土的抗拉强度很小，用途受到限制。 十九世纪中叶以后，钢铁产量激增，随之出现了钢筋混凝土这种新型的复合建筑材料，其中钢筋承担拉力，混凝土承担压力，发挥了各自的优点。 二十世纪初以来，钢筋混凝土广泛应用于土木工程的各个领域。 从三十年代开始，出现了预应力混凝土。预应力混凝土结构的抗裂性能、刚度和承载能力，大大高于钢筋混凝土结构，因而用途更为广阔。土木工程进入了钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土占统治地位的历史时期。混凝土的出现给建筑物带来了新的经济、美观的工程结构形式，使土木工程产生了新的施工技术和工程结构设计理论。这是土木工程的又一次飞跃发展。 建造一项工程设施一般要经过勘察、设计和施工三个阶段，需要运用工程地质勘察、水文地质勘察、工程测量、土力学、工程力学、工程设计、建筑材料、建筑设备、工程机械、建筑经济等学科和施工技术、施工组织等领域的知识 ，以及电子计算机和力学测试等技术。因而土木