斯金纳-言语行为

1、攻击与争议之后 解读斯金纳的 言语行为主要内容v斯金纳的生平及贡献v言语行为简介v言语行为第4，6，13，17章解读斯金纳的生平及贡献（1/4）v1904-1990v美国在世的心理学家中最有影响的，在人类行为科学中最引起争辩的人物。美国时代周刊v即使弗洛伊德也没有引起赞同者和敌对者完全不同的两个对立的阵容。v不管是怎样看待斯金纳的工作，把他看成人类的救星或奴役者，我们都没法否定他对现代心理学的影响。现代心理学作者舒尔茨斯金纳的生平及贡献（2/4）v1922年进入汉密尔顿学院，专修英文v攻读生物学，胚胎学、解剖学、中枢神经系统生理学,读了华生和巴普洛夫的著作v1930年获哈佛心理学硕士，1931

2、年获哲学博士学位。留校从事研究v1936-1944明尼苏达大学任讲师、副教授v1945年人印第安纳大学心理系教授、系主任v1948哈佛大学心理学教授至1974年退休斯金纳的生平及贡献（3/4）主要著作1938有机体的行为：一种实验分析有机体的行为：一种实验分析1971超越自由与尊严超越自由与尊严1948沃登第二沃登第二1974关于行为主义关于行为主义1953科学与人类行为科学与人类行为1976Particulars of My Life: Part One of an Autobiography1957Schedules of Reinforcement1978Reflections on B

3、ehaviorism and Society1957言语行为言语行为1979The Shaping of a Behaviorist: Part Two of an Autobiography一个行一个行为主义者的塑造为主义者的塑造1959Cumulative Record: Definitive Edition1983A Matter of Consequences: Part Three of an Autobiography后果后果问题问题1961The Analysis of Behavior: A Program for Self-Instruction1983Enjoy Old A

4、ge: A Program of Self-Management1968教学技术教学技术1987Upon Further Reflection1969强化的相倚关系：一种理论分析强化的相倚关系：一种理论分析1989Recent Issues in the Analysis of Behavior斯金纳的生平及贡献（4/4）v“教学机器之父”。v1958年美国心理学会授予他“卓越科学贡献奖”v1968年他荣获美国国家科学奖章，这是美国最高级别的科学奖励v1971年美国心理学基金会授予他一枚金质奖章v1990年8月10日美国心理学会授予他“心理学毕生贡献奖”荣誉证书言语行为简介-No black

5、scorpion (1/6)v言语行为研究的起源vIn 1934, in a casual discussion with Professor Alfred North Whitehead at a dining tablevHe (Whitehead) brought the discussion to a close with a friendly challenge: “Let me see you,” he said, “account for my behavior as I sit here saying, No black scorpion is falling upon thi

6、s table.” the next morning I drew up the outline of the present study (Skinner 1957:457). 言语行为简介-No black scorpion(2/6)vThere was no black scorpion falling on the table. vThe response was emitted to make a point out of the blue. meant to be a poser just because it was not obviously controlled by a p

7、resent stimulus.vThe response may have been weakly determined, but it was not necessarily free. vThe stimulus may not have been much, but in a determined system it must have been something. vThe black scorpion was a metaphorical response to the topic under discussion. The black scorpion was behavior

8、ism. (ibid: 458)言语行为简介-No black scorpion(3/6)vHe proposed that Whitehead was unconsciously expressing a fear of behaviorism, likening it to a black scorpion that he would not allow to intrude into his philosophy (Corballis 1999). vI hope that he will agree that the analysis has shown respect for hum

9、an achievement and that it is compatible with a sense of dignity- in short, that no black scorpion has fallen upon this table (ibid:460). 言语行为简介（4/6）vSkinner once said that his most important work was Verbal Behavior, and he suggested that, in the long run, it might have the greatest impact on psych

10、ology of any of his ideas (Lattal 1992).v对言语行为的说明是斯金纳行为主义理论体系的重要方面。他的言语行为一书历时23载才完成从写作到出版的过程，据此可见他在这一领域所耗费的心血。另一方面，却恰恰是这个领域，让斯金纳遭到了无力反击的攻击，也可以说是他的行为操作强化理论受到重大伤害的一个突破口（乐国安 1999）。言语行为简介（5/6）vVerbal behavior: behavior reinforced through the mediation of other persons ( Skinner 1957:14). emphasizes the

11、individual speaker and specifies behavior shaped and maintained by mediated consequences( ibid:2).言语行为简介(6/6)vMen act upon the world, and change it, and are changed in turn by the consequences of their action( ibid:1).vThe extent to which we understand verbal behavior in a “causal” analysis is to be

12、 assessed from the extent to which we can predict the occurrence of specific instances and, eventually, from the extent to which we can produce or control such behavior by altering the conditions under which it occurs( ibid:3).言语行为一书结构vPart I: A ProgramvPart II: Controlling Variables Verbal behavior

13、 under the control of verbal stimuli Special conditions affecting stimulus controlvPart III: Multiple VariablesvPart IV: The Manipulation of Verbal Behavior Grammar and syntax as autoclitic processesvPart V: The Production of Verbal Behavior Self-strengthening of verbal behavior术语-Stimulus controlvP

14、rior stimuli in a three-term contingency of reinforcement: in the presence of a given stimulus, a given response is characteristically followed by a given reinforcement. Such a contingency is a property of the environment. When it prevails, the organism not only acquires the response which achieves

15、reinforcement, it becomes more likely to emit that response in the presence of the prior stimulus. (ibid: 31)vS-R-R术语-Stimulus controlvBy reinforcing with candy we strengthen the response Candy! Subsequently we control the response, not by further reinforcement, but by depriving the child with candy

16、 (ibid: 31).术语Generalized conditioned reinforcer vAny event which characteristically precedes many different reinforcers can be used as a reinforcer to bring behavior under the control of all appropriate conditions of deprivation and aversive stimulation (ibid: 53). vExample: approval 术语vSix operant

17、s:vMandvTactvEchoic, textual, intraverbal, autoclitics. 术语-MandvA mand may be defined as a verbal operant in which the response is reinforced by a characteristic consequence and is therefore under the functional control of relevant conditions of deprivation or aversive stimulation( Skinner 1957:36)v

18、祈令语：一种言语操作反应，由有特征的结果强化，所以对它进行功能控制的是短缺状态或反感性刺激作用等条件。 包括疑问、请求、命令、威胁等等（王宗炎 1982a）v Example：Candy! Pass the salt!术语-tactvTact：a verbal operant in which a response of given form is evoked (or at least strengthened) by a particular object or event or property of an object or event. (skinner 1957:81-82)vTa

19、ct 触发反应，触发语：言语操作反应，这个具有一定形式的反应，是由特定的对象或事件，或者这对象或事件的性质诱发（至少是增强）的。vIn a tact, the response refers to, mentions, announces, talks about, names, denotes, describes its stimulus (ibid: 81).第四章言语刺激控制下的言语行为言语行为言语行为定义定义举例举例回声行为回声行为（echoic behavior）The response generates a sound-pattern similar to that of th

20、e stimulus.这种反应这种反应“生成生成”与刺激类似的语言模与刺激类似的语言模式，只包括那些应声而起的模仿。式，只包括那些应声而起的模仿。 Teacher: say beaverStudents: beaver文本行为文本行为（textual behavior） 由文字刺激引起的言语反应由文字刺激引起的言语反应 标示牌标示牌 “此路不通此路不通”Transcription 刺激和反应都是文字的。文字刺激引发刺激和反应都是文字的。文字刺激引发文字反应文字反应 临摹，听写临摹，听写言内操作反应言内操作反应（intraverbal behavior） some verbal response

21、s show no point-to-point correspondence with the verbal stimuli which evoke them (ibid: 71).Two plus twoFour 第四章言语刺激控制下的言语行为vThe contribution of such response is particularly important when we come to examine how variables combine in sustained speech, and how the effect of the speakers own behavior

22、leads him to compose and edit what he says and to manipulate it in verbal thinking. (Skinner 1958:80)第六章第六章 影响刺激控制的特殊情况影响刺激控制的特殊情况v普遍化强化的特殊量数 扭曲的触发反应：夸大、缩小、编造 （讲评书）v非普遍化强化 - 来自听者操作行为的特殊强化：听者所采取的行动比普遍 化强化更为重要。 - 来自听者情感行为的强化 - 听者反应的强度：听者的“信仰” v来自于说话者本人的强化效果v言语行为的惩罚v读者第十三章第十三章 语法和句法作为自向反应过程语法和句法作为自向反应过

23、程vI think its raining. v自向反应（autoclitics） ：describe, qualify, or otherwise comment upon verbal behavior and thus clarify or alter its effect upon the listener.（Skinner 1957:332） vI recall, I imagine, for example, assume, Let X equal ; 否定用语；表述句和肯定句中的is, all, some, if, then第十三章第十三章 语法和句法作为自向反应过程语法和句法作

24、为自向反应过程v本章的研究内容：不明显的表现出自向功能，本身存在无意义， 包括介词，连词，冠词，词形变化。对言语反应（语言元素）的排序。v关系自向反应：表明动词、名词、形容词之间在数、性、格的一致。 第十三章：关系自向行为第十三章：关系自向行为v以功能为分析单位（Functional unity） milk! / Could I have some milk?v言语行为的丰富性 As verbal behavior develops in the individual speaker, larger and larger responses acquire functional unity;

25、as a verbal environment undergoes historical development, it reinforces larger and larger units. (ibid: 336) 第十三章：关系自向行为第十三章：关系自向行为v言语行为的创造性 Partially conditioned autoclitic “frames” combine with responses appropriate to a specific situation（ibid:336）. Partial frame： the boys _ 第十三章：关系自向行为第十三章：关系自向行

26、为v言语行为的恰当性vIn complex situation, where several verbal operants are strengthened. “Effective behavior demands, to put it roughly, that an appropriate first response be chosen, and that other responses be related to this and to each other with appropriate autoclitics.(ibid:335)”-approapriate relationa

27、l autoclitics added in composing the larger sample.vAppropriate first response: single propertyobjectaction (ibid: 337). 第十七章 言语行为的自我加强(1/2)vA person controls his own behavior, verbal or otherwise, as he controls the behavior of others (ibid: 403).v方法：方法：v操纵刺激 -自我提醒: introverbal relation - 自我探查 (sel

28、f-probes) : crystal ball, tea leaves, fortune-telling cards. -改变听者变量：找到适合的听者。v改变编辑加工的程度 - 说话者或写作者“进入角色”。v言语行为的机械产出 -对词的机械重组，可以成为提示。v改变动机和情感变量v仔细考虑第十七章 言语行为的自我加强(2/2)vBuilding new verbal responsesvReading “for” knowledge or information is usually reading undertaken for the sake of the new verbal beha

29、vior which results. (ibid: 415) 乔姆斯基的批判：无的放矢(1/3)v斯金纳研究的是外部环境对语言习得和使用的重要作用，对于人脑内部是否有特殊的语言机制，他并没有否认，只不过那不是他的研究重点。一个着重外部因素，一个着重内部心理，本身就是两个不同的领域（陈国华）。乔姆斯基的批判：无的放矢(2/3)vChomskys criticisms of Skinner are, then, necessarily methodological. The disagreement is fundamentally an epistemological one, a “para

30、digm clash.”(MacCorquodale 1970)vNoam Chomsky wrote a highly critical review of Skinners book which some, especially those who had not read Skinners book, felt had discredited Skinners work. But those who did read the book held that Chomsky had simply missed the point (Ledoux 2002).乔姆斯基的批判：无的放矢(3/3)

31、v最后，美国的心理学界也不适应乔姆斯基讨论问题的方式了。他们总觉得乔姆斯基在学术上不是心平气和地和大家探索问题，而是搞对抗；不是做研究，而是“闹革命”。因此乔姆斯基的“革命”在心里学界没有带来触目惊心的战斗，成了一次单方面的宣战（胡壮麟 2008）。vProbably the strongest reason why no one has replied to the review is its tone. (MacCorquodale 1970). 乔姆斯基的批判：语言习得(1/2)v乔姆斯基：It is simply not true that children can learn lan

32、guage only through meticulous care on the part of adults who shape their verbal repertoire through careful differential reinforcement (Chomsky 1959:42). v幼儿语言丰富，许多不曾说过，不可能经过操作强化而形成。乔姆斯基的批判：语言习得(2/2)v斯金纳认为语言习得的过程： The raw responses from which verbal behavior is constructed are not “elicited.” In orde

33、r to be reinforced a given response we simply wait until it occurs. A child acquires verbal behavior when relatively unpatterned vocalizations, selectively reinforced, gradually assume forms which produce appropriate consequences in a given verbal community (Skinner 1957: 31). vTrial-and-error proce

34、ss (陈国华)乔姆斯基的批判：内部心理Vs外界因素 (1/3)v乔姆斯基的误读： that the contribution of the speaker is quite trivial and elementary, and that precise prediction of verbal behavior involves only specification of the few external factors that he has isolated experimentally with lower organisms (Chomsky 1959:28).乔姆斯基的批判：内部

35、心理Vs外界因素(2/3)v影响言语行为的不仅仅是外部因素。vChapter 19 Thinking vverbal behavior which cannot be observed by others is not properly part of our field.But there would be certain embarrassing gaps in our account. In intraverbal chaining, autoclitics, grammar, sentence composition, editing(Skinner 1957: 434)乔姆斯基的批判

36、：内部心理Vs外界因素(3/3)vIdentify thinking with covert verbal behavior / subaudible talking. Other “mental processes” (generalization, abstraction, reasoning) are not behaviors. They are controlling relations or the changes in probability which result from changes in such relations. vHe intends to account o

37、nly for the objective dimensions of verbal behavior and to invoke only objective, nonmentalistic and nonhypothetical entities to account for it (MacCorquodale 1970).乔姆斯基的批判：句子的形成v斯金纳：一个句子是摆在一个框架（skeletonal frame）上的一系列主要反映（名词、动词、形容词）。自向反应（包括词序）能把这些未经加工的反应处理一番，把其间各种关系表示出来，结果造成一个合语法的句子。v乔姆斯基：句子是把若干词汇项目

38、填入语法框架里构成，与传统哲学和语言学的说法一致，但在其内部过程中，先挑出某些词（如名、动、形）而后加以安排、修饰（自向反应）。乔（这是难以置信的猜想）（the very implausible speculation that in the internal process of composition） 乔姆斯基的批判：句子的形成v乔：It is evident that more is involved in sentences structure than insertion of lexical items in grammatical frames. vfuriously sleep ideas green colorless.说明句子结构的内容显然不只是把词汇项目塞进语法框架里。v斯：composition造句的过程是因为说话者过去的言语行为不能为当前的变量提供恰当的反应，所以在自向反应的帮助下，说话者根据当前变量操控自己的言语反应。这个反应是由当前变量引发的，受prior stimulus控制的，而不是随意说出的。斯金纳的辩护v呕心沥血之作遭到了来自语言学界和心理语言学界的反对。v在操作行为的实验分析(1977)一文中：v我相信，它（言语行为一书）将被证明是我最为重要的成果，它至今没有为语言学家或心理语言学家们所理解，这部分