(完整word版)新编语言学教程刘润清版1,2章复习大纲

1、CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTIONDefinition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by thethree cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.LinguisticsLinguistics versus traditional grammar:Linguistics describes languages and does not l

2、ay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness.Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language.Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and s

3、tructures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its own merits.ScopeMicrolinguisticsPhoneticsPhonology MorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsMacrolinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguisticsNeurolinguisticsStylisticsDiscourse analysisComputational linguisticsCognitive linguisticsla

4、nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system-elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules andDefinition:principles. Language is arbitrary- there is no intrinsic connection between the word (e.g. pen) and the thi

5、ng(e.g.what we write with).Language is vocal-the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for humancommunication -it is human-specific, very different form systems of animal communication.Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the ob

6、jects he encountered.Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speakers emotions.OriginsYo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.Ta-Ta Theory : language came from

7、 the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements.Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.Arbitrarines s: this refers tothe fact that there is nological orintrinsic connection between a particularsound and themeaning it is associated wit

8、h. For example, English should use the sounds/d ?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese shoulduse “gou”to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pigif the first man happens to name it as a“pig”. So, therelationship between the sounds andtheir meaningis quiteaccidental. Of course, onomato

9、poeticwords such as“quack-quack”and “bang”are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words inlanguage.DesignDuality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves butfeatures which combine to for

10、m units at another level which do have meaning.Productivity: productivity or creativityrefers to mans linguisticability whichenables him to produce and understand aninfinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.Interchangeability :

11、 interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, andhis roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time.Specializa

12、tion: specializationrefers tothe fact thatman does not have atotal physicalinvolvementin the act ofcommunication.Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being broughtup in isolations simply doesn tacquire language, as is demonstr

13、ated by the studies of children brought up by animals withouthuman contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesntspeak any language atbirth. What language a baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brough

14、tup in London by an English family will speak English, while an English kid brought up in a Chinese community will speakChinese.Functions Phatic function/communionDirective functionInformative functionInterrogative functionExpressive functionEvocative functionPerformative functionSome major concepts

15、 in linguisticsDescriptive and prescriptive grammarDescriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is desc

16、riptive.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsWhen we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it iscalled diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in

17、 history while diachronic linguistics focuses on he difference in two or more than two tates of language over decades or centuries.Langue and paroleF.de Saussure made an important distinction between langue and parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a sp

18、eech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of

19、 abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is , the actual use of this knowledge.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSaussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal re

20、lationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.Functionalism and formalismFunctionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in

21、 reference to their social function in communication.Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.课后练习If language is partially defined as communication, can we call the noises that dogs make language? Why or why not?No,we can tcall the n

22、oises that dogs make as language even though language is partially defined as communication. There are two reasons for that: first, language is human-specific,it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used only for human communication. Second, language has design features which are totally lack in a

23、nimal communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Noises made by dogs represent certain meaning but can not be further analyzed into sm

24、aller units.What is the difference between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to language?Descriptive approach to language attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive approach to language tells people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that wha

25、tever occurs naturally in the language should be described. Certain forms are sued more regularly than others and by different people. Though some forms occur less frequently they should not be ignored. They can all be recorded and explained as aspects of the languages since hey are actually used.A

26、wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, confident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and

27、 complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man s ? If not, why not?No, we can not say a wolf has a language similar to that ofmen even though ther

28、e were a thousand different emotions that the wolf couldexpress with his positions of body parts. There are two reasons for that:First, language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is human-specific. Second, language hasdesign features which are lack in anim

29、alscommunication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level areelements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. But in wolfscommunication system, one position stands for one certain meaning, and can no

30、t be further analyzed into smaller units. And no the otherhand, human linguistic units can be grouped and regrouped, arranged and rearranged according to certain rules but those positions owned by wolf have no such features. Therefore, wolf s this system is not so productive as human languages.Disti

31、nctive featuresChapter 2 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGEWith some phonetic knowledge we can give a much more precise description to speech sounds. And with someINTRODUCTIONphonological knowledge we can become more aware of the functions of sounds in different languages. More importantly, phonetics and phonol

32、ogy have made the greatest contribution to “teaching”machines to “talk ”.Phonology : is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Phoneme is the phonological units of language, and it isan abstract collection of phonetic features which anddistinguish meaning.Phoneme:

33、Minimal pairs andminimal setsFree variationFor example, sip and zip is signaled by the fact that the initial sound of the first word is s/s/ and the initial sound of the second word is z/z/./s/and /z/can therefore distinguish or contrast words. Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes.Minimal pai

34、rs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound. For example, chunk and junk ,ban and bin, be and bat, fan and van, fine and vine, sink and zinc, site and side are minimal pairs in English.When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phon

35、eme (always in thesame position), then we have a minimal set. For example, a minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of English would include feat, fit ,fate fat fought and foot, and one based on consonants could have big, pig, rig, fig, dig and wig.when two or more sounds occur in the same positon

36、without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.For example, there are two pronunciation of the word either,we can say /i: ?r/ and /a?r/.When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature). For example, seal and zeal

37、 distinguishes by /s/ ad /z/,/s/ is voiceless and /z/ is voiced,so /s/ and /z/ is a voicing difference.The English word beautiful consists of three speech units: beau-ti-ful. These units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables.Syllable structuresyll

38、ablesyllablesonsetRime(rhyme)Nucleus(peak)codaConsonant(s)vowelconsonant(s)Consonant clusterIn English some words may contain a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in /splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters.Initial cluster: /spl/

39、 in / spl? / splashFinal cluster: /st/ in /test/ testMedial cluster: /str/ in / pe?str?/ pastryA word which begins with three-consonant clusters always observes three strict rules:The first consonant must be /s/The second phoneme must be /p /or /t/ or /k/The third consonant must be /l / or /r / or /

40、w / or /j /Sound contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes),and such contrasts are called suprasegmentals.Suprasegmental featuresStressSuprasegmentalsWhen a word has more than one syllable, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech

41、sound phenomenon, that of stress.IntonationWhen sounds which are identical as to their place or manner features may differ in length, pitch or loudness. When speaking, people generally raise and lower the pitch of their voice. This phenomenon is called intonation.Definition: The study of the speech

42、sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.Articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are produced, or“articulated”.Three research fieldsAcoustic phonetics, which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.Auditory phonetics, which deals with

43、how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.ArticulatorsandfunctionsVoicedandPharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx.Velum or soft palate is seen in the position that allows air to pass through the nose and the mouth.Hard palate is often called the “roof of the mouth ”, you can feel

44、 its smooth curved surface with your tongue.Alveolar ridge or alveolum is between the top front teeth and hard palate.Tongue can be moved into many different places and different shapes.TeethLarynx is also an articulator.LipsNoticesJaws are sometimes called articulators,but the jaws are not articula

45、tors in the same way as others.The nose and the nasal cavity not articulators as others.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds. The sou

46、nds represented by /p/,/t/,/k/,and /s/ in the English words seep/si:p/,seat/si:t/,and seek/si:k/ are voiceless sounds.voiceless soundsNasalandoral soundsVariationsofsoundsWhen the vocal cords are drawn together, the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. Sounds produced in this

47、 way are described as voiced sounds. The sounds represented by /b/, /d/, /g/ and /z/ in the English words cob/k ? b/,cod/k ? d/,cog/k ? g/,and daze/de ?z/ are voiced sounds.When the velum is lowered, air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth; sounds produced this way are called nasal sounds.

48、 There are three nasal consonants /m/, /n/,and ?/ in English.When the velum is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off. When the nasal passage is blocked in this way, the air can escape only through the mouth. Sounds produced this way are called or

49、al sounds. /p/ and /b/ are oral sounds.Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel, is called liaison. The phrase “an egg”is often pronounced /?neg/.Elision : the loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision. The word

50、 “suppose”is often pronounced as /sp? z/, “factory ”as / f? ktr?/.Assimilation : the way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation. In English the negative prefix occurs as “im- ”before words such

51、as “possible ”- ”impossible ”.ClassificationofEnglishSpeechSoundsDefinition: vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so o turbulence or a total stoppingVowelsof the air can be perceived.Front vowels: /i:/ / ?/ /e/ / ?/ /? / /The height of the tongueCentral vowels: / :/ /?/ /?/Back vowels: /u

52、:/ /u/ / ?:/ /?/ / :/The shape of the lipRounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ / ?:/ /?/Unrounded vowels: /i:/ / ?/ /e/ / ?/ /? / / /:/ /?/ /?/ / :/Open vowels:/? / / / ?/ / :/The width of the mouthClose vowels:/i:/ / ?/ /u:/ /u/Semi-open vowels:/?:/ /e/ / ?/ /:/ /?/ /?/Consonants are sounds produced by constric

53、ting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.Bilabials / p, b, m, w/Labiodentals / f, v/ConsonantsDentals / ?, /in terns of place of articulationAlveolars / t, d, n, s, z, r, l /Palatals/? ,?/Velars /k, g, ? /glottal /h

54、 /Stops / p, b, t, d, k, g /Fricatives /f, v, ?, , s, z, ?, ?, h /Affricates / ? , ? /In terms of manners of articulationLiquids /l, r /Nasals /m, n, ? /Glides/j, w /CAPTER 2课后练习2. What is the test most often used for determining phonemes in a language?Minimal pair test or substitution test is the f

55、irst rule of thumb to determine the phonemes of any language, that is , to see whether substituting one sound for another result in a different word. If it does , the two sound represent different phonemes. For example, we see from the contrast between fine and vine and between chunk and junk that /

56、f /, /v /,/ ? /and / ? / must be phonemes in English because substituting /v/ for /f /,or / ? / for / ? / produce a different word.3. What s the difference between an open and a closed syllable?The units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllables can be divided into two so