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1、 Chapter 2 Phonology2.1 The Phonic medium of languageSpeech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.Language is first perceived through its sound. Thus the study of sound is of great importance in linguistics.The limited range of sounds whi

2、ch are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 PhoneticsLanguage is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sound

3、s-sounds that convey meaning in human communication. Phonetics-A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. p bilabial, stop. 3 branches of phoneticsl Articulatory phonetics-from the spea

4、kers point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”l Auditory phonetics-from the hearers point of view, “how sounds are perceived”l Acoustic phonetics-from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another. It studies “the physical properties of the stream of sounds”

5、 (语音流的物理特征)2.2.2 Organs of speech Pharyngeal cavity - the throat: air-lungs-windpipe-glottis The oral cavity - the mouth: The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found here. tongue-the most flexible and responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other Nasal cavity - the

6、 nose: It is connected with the oral cavity. 1. Lips2. Teeth3. Teeth ridge (alveolar)4. Hard palate5. Soft palate (velum)6. Uvula7. Tip of tongue8. Blade of tongue9. Back of tongue10. Vocal cords11. Pharyngeal cavity12. Nasal cavity The diagram of speech organstongue the most flexible, responsible f

7、or more varieties of articulation than any othere.g k g: obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar areaj: the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tonguet d: the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the velar ridge : partial obstruction betw

8、een the upper front teeth and the tip of the tongueIPA-International Phonetic Alphabet1, A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription2, The basic rule of IPAUsing one letter selected from major European language to represent one speech sound.Broad & Narrow Transcripti

9、on1, Broad transcription: Transcription with letter symbols only, without diacritics, used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose.e.g. help, kn, spi:k, litl for help, can and speak and little.2, Narrow transcription: Transcription with letter-symbols and diacritics, used by phonetician for c

10、areful study.e.g. kn, hep for can and help. and are used instead of and l. The use of diacritics1. l: leaf li:f clear l: occurring before a vowel, no diacritics is needed to indicate feel fi:l, build bild dark : occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant diacritics is used to indicat

11、e2. p: spit spit unaspirated p: the puff of air is withheld to some extent pit phit aspirated p: pronounced with a strong puff of air diacritics his used to indicate Classification of consonants - English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: The manner of articulation The place

12、of articulation2.2.4 Classification of English speech soundsVowels / Consonants:Whether the air stream coming from the lungs meets with obstructionThe manner of articulationl stops/plosives: p, b, t, d, k, g;l fricatives: f, v, s, z, , , , , h;l affricates: t, d; l liquids: l(lateral), r; l nasals:

13、m, n, ; l glides/semivowels: w, j. The place of articulationl bilabial: p, b, m, w;l labiodental: f, v;l dental: , ;l alveolar: t, d, s, z, n, l, r;l palatal: , , t, d, j;l velar: k, g, ; l glottal: h.The place of articulation1.Bilabial;2.Labiodental;3.Dental or interdental;4.Alveolar;5.Palato alveo

14、lar;6.Palatal;7.Velar;8.Uvular;9.Glottal.The classification of English consonantsPlacemannerVoic-ingBila-bialLabio-dentalDentalAlveo-larPalatalVelar Glottal Stops or plosivesVL p t k VD b d g Frica-tivesVL f s h VD v z Affri-catesVL(t ) t VD(d) d NasalsVD m n LiquidsVD l , rGlides VD w j 1. Accordin

15、g to the position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back vowelsfront vowel: the front part of tongue maintains the highest position i:ieacentral vowel: the central part of the tongue is held highest :back vowel: the back of the tongue is held highest u:u:a:Classification of vowels 2. Accordi

16、ng to the openness of the mouth: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowelsclosed vowels: i:i u: usemi-close vowels:e :semi-open vowels: :open vowels: a a:3. According to the shape of the lips: rounded/ unrounded vowels unrounded vowels: all the front vowels rounded vowels: all t

17、he back vowels except a:4. According to the length of the vowels: long vowels, short vowelsThe diagram of Vowels Classificationfrontclosesemi-close semi-openopen i: ie:au:u:a: central back2.3 PhonologyPhonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form sy

18、stems and patterns in human languages.2.3.1 Phonetics & phonologyl Both are concerned with the same aspect of language-the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.l Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to an

19、swer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.l Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Quest

20、ion:Is Chang-woo Chinese?2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, allophone Phone- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. e.g ph (as in pit), p (as in spit), s, t Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some dont. e.g s and t do

21、, as in si:m and ti:m th and t dont, asstp sthpwhat does not distinguish meaning in one language may probably do in another languagePhoneme- a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic

22、contexte.g the relation between aspirated ph and unaspirated p corresponds to that between clear l and dark : there is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference doesnt give rise to difference in meaning /p/and /l/ are two phoneme in the English sound systemphones are

23、placed within square brackets: phonemes are places in slashes:/ /Allophones - the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.e.g dark l and clear are allophones of the phoneme lthe choice of an allophone is not random but rule-governedQuestion:Is Chang-woo Chinese?2.3.3 P

24、honemic contrast, Complementary distribution, Minimal pairl Phonemic contrast-different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. /b/ and /p/ in bit and pit.l Complementary distribution-allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. Th

25、ey occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g dark l & clear l, aspirated p & unaspirated p. Question:Is Chang-woo Chinese? Minimal pair-Two different words that are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings. pin-bin, bin-tin, tie-die, choke-jok

26、e, pill-bill, bill-till, till-kill. They should meet 3 conditions:(1) They are different in meaning.(2) They differ only in one sound segment.(3) The different sounds occur in the same position in the strings.Question:Is Chang-woo Chinese? Minimal set -A group of words which meet all the above 3 con

27、ditions. For example: big dig pig wig; pill bill till kill; mail sail tail; lake make sake bake cake fake; Question:Is Chang-woo Chinese?2.3.4 Some rules of phonology Sequential rulesAssimilation rule Deletion rule Question:Is Chang-woo Chinese?Sequential rulesl Sequential rules - the rules that gov

28、ern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.l If a word begins with a l or a r, then the next sound must be a vowel.Question:Is Chang-woo Chinese?If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word,

29、the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream. a) the first phoneme must be /s/, b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/, c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/. * N never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chines

30、e, but it does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantonese: “牛肉,我, 俄语”Question:Is Chang-woo Chinese?Assimilation rule Assimilation rule-assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar Assimilation in Mandarin 好啊 hao wa 海啊 hai ya 跳啊 ti

31、ao wa e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts: indiscreet d: alveolar stop齿龈闭塞音 n: alveolar nasal inconceivable k: velar stop软腭闭塞音 n: velar nasal, i.e. input p: bilabial stop imQuestion:Is Chang-woo Chinese?Deletion rule Deletion rule- it tells us when a soun

32、d is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented e.g. design, paradigm, there is no g sound; but the g sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic. Question:Is Chang-woo Chinese?2.3.5 Suprasegmental featuresSuprasegmental features-the phonemic

33、features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme):l Stress : word stress 1. noun-verbe.g import n. import v. rebel n. rebel v.2. compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elementse.g blackbird: a particular kind of bird black bird: any bird with black color 3. The co

34、mbination of ing forms and nounscompound nouns: dining-room, reading glasses the ing form serves as a modifier of the noun not compound nouns: sleeping baby, swimming fish the noun is the doer of the action indicated by the ing form sentence stress normally stressed parts in English sentence: nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrativ

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