Approaches and methods in language teaching and learning(杨)

1、Approaches and Methods in Foreign Language Teaching and LearningThree terms related to language teachingoApproachoMethodoTechniqueApproach It is a set of correlated assumptions or theories dealing with the nature of language and language learning. It determines the methods adopted under the approach

2、. Within one approach, there can be many methods.Method It is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, i.e., which is an application of views on how a language is best taught and learned. Different methods of language teaching result from different views of:othe nature of l

3、anguageothe nature of language learningogoals and objectives in teachingothe type of syllabus to useothe role of teachers, learners, and instructional materialsothe techniques and procedures to useTechnique Any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or devices used in the language classroom for

4、 realizing lesson objectives. Different theories about the nature of language and how languages are learned (the approach) imply different ways of teaching (the method), and different methods make use of different kinds of classroom activity (the technique).The main foreign language teaching methods

5、 oThe Grammar-translation Method (1840s-1940s)oDirect Method (1900-1930-)oSituational language teaching (Oral approach) (1930-1980-)oAudio-Lingual Method (1950-1980-) oTotal Physical Response oThe Silent Way (1960s-2000s)oCommunity language learning (1960s-2000s)oSuggestopediaoThe Natural Approach o

6、Communicative Language TeachingoTask-Based Language TeachingoPost method The Grammar-translation Method (1840s-1940s)The Grammar-translation Method (1840s-1940s) Typically used in teaching Greek and Latin when living languages began to be widely taught in the 19th century. It was the dominant method

7、 until the end of the century and has continued to be used in one form or another until the present day.The principal featuresoThe students native language is the medium of instruction.oVocabulary is taught through bilingual and isolated word lists. oElaborate explanations of grammar are always prov

8、ided. oThe most popular exercise is translation from L1 into L2 and vice versa. oReading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking and listening. oIt is used in situations where understanding literary texts and attempts to produce perfect translation of l

9、iterary prose are the primary focus of FLL.oIt makes few demands on teachers. (It is a method for which there is no way to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology or educational theories.) Strengths oIt makes good use of the speakers first language in the process of learning a second language

10、 and introduces translation as a device into FLT.oThe explicit learning of grammar may be a shortcut to some people.oGrammar-Translation is a problem-solving technique, which benefits adult learners particularly.oIt appears relatively easy to apply when the teachers target language is not satisfacto

11、ry.oIt lays stress on reading and memorizing well-known literary pieces. WeaknessesoThe excessive use of translation tends to form the students the habit of translation and it is harmful to the free use of the FL.oLanguage is not logic but usage. In grammar study, attention is on language form, not

12、on the expression of ideas.oStudents ability to use the target language for communication is limited. Direct Method (1900-1930-)Direct Method (1900-1930-) Historically, the language teaching reforms from 1850 to 1900, attempted to make language teaching more effective by a radical change from gramma

13、r-translation. This method developed as a revolution against the G-T M at the end of the 19th century. The principal featuresoLanguages are believed to be learnt best in a natural way. oLessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first presen

14、ted orally with actions or pictures. oIt requires native speakers as teachers or teachers with nativelike fluency in FL.oThe preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue. oGrammar is taught inductively. oThe culture associated with the target langu

15、age is also taught inductively. StrengthsoIt is the first method to make language learning situation into one of language use.oStudents learn to use the language, not about the language.oBy using the target language as the language of instruction and classroom practice, students get more exposure to

16、 the target language.oBy avoiding translation, students are free from the mother tongue interference.WeaknessesoIt overemphasized and distorted the similarities between naturalistic first language learning and classroom FLL and fails to consider the practical realities of the classroom. oNot all tea

17、chers are so proficient to adhere to the method because avoiding the use of mother tongue would become an inconvenience. oThe condition of the student in FLL is different from that of the child in learning its mother tongue. (Lack a through methodological basis and a rigorous basis in applied lingui

18、stic theory.)Principles for teaching oral languageoNever translate: demonstrateoNever explain: actoNever make a speech: ask questionsoNever imitate mistakes: correctoNever speak with single words: use sentencesoNever speak too much: make students speak muchoNever use the book: use your lesson planoN

19、ever jump around: follow your planoNever go too fast: keep the pace of the studentoNever speak too slowly: speak normallyoNever speak too quickly: speak naturallyoNever speak too loudly: speak naturallyoNever be impatient: take it easySituational language teaching (Oral approach) (1930-1980-)Situati

20、onal language teaching (Oral approach) (1930-1980-) Developed by British Applied Linguists from 1930s-1960s, as an improvement of the Direct Method. It is a grammar-based method in which principles of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teaching points presented and practiced through

21、situations. It shares many views about language and learning with the DM, and is equally opposed to the G-T M. The principal featuresoNew language points are introduced and practiced situationally. Situation includes the following elements: 1) The persons taking part in the speech act 2) The place w

22、here the conversation occurs 3) The time the speech act is taking place 4) The topic or activity that is being discussedoThe target language is the language of the classroom. oReading and writing are taught only after an oral base in lexical and grammatical forms has been established.oGrammatical st

23、ructures are graded from simple to complex. oAccuracy is crucial, error avoided, automatic control of basis structure and sentence patterns. Theory of language British structuralism (Speech is the basis of language and structure is at the heart of speaking ability) Theory of learningoBehaviorist hab

24、it-learning theory (drill-based manner of practicing; guided repetition and substitution activities and controlled oral-based reading and writing tasks.)oIn terms of strength, it makes meaning clearer and easier to understand because new items are presented in situations. And it is also due to this

25、feature that teachers found it very difficult to present all the items in appropriate situations, and this forms an extra burden for teachers.Classroom procedures Procedures at any level aim to move from controlled to freer practice and from oral use of sentence patterns to their automatic use in sp

26、eech, reading, and writing. For example: Pittman illustrates oral drilling on a pattern, using a box full of objects to create the situation. The pattern being practiced is “There is a NOUN +of + (noun) in the box.” The teacher takes objects out of the box and the class repeats.Audio-Lingual Method

27、(1950-1980-)Audio-Lingual Method (1950-1980-) During World War II, the USA faced the task of having to teach oral skills in a large variety of languages to a vast number of people in the military in a very short time. The emergence of this method resulted from the increased attention given to foreig

28、n language teaching in the United States toward the end of the 1950s. The need for a radical change and rethinking of FLT methodology was prompted by the launching of the first Russian satellite in 1957. This method is based on the principles of American structuralism and behavior psychology. The pr

29、incipal featuresoNew material is presented in the form of a dialogue.oThe method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning.oStructures are sequenced and vocabulary is strictly limited.oGrammar is taught by the practice of the language rather than a direct explanati

30、on. oSkills are sequenced. Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order.oThere is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids.oGreat importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. oSuccessful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent lear

31、ner errors.oThere is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning. StrengthsoIt fits into the idea of language as speech, not written.oIt helps students gain good pronunciation.oPattern practice helps students to achieve fluency and accuracy in lang

32、uage production. oBy using language labs, students get more exposure to native speaker language use.WeaknessesoIt lacks flexibility. When students are faced with a context, they are unable to use learned materials.oMuch of human language use is not imitated behavior but is created. Students are not

33、learned by imitation and repetition but generated from the learners underlying “competence”.learning and teaching activitiesoRepetitionoInflectionoReplacementoRestatementoRestatementoCompletionoTranspositionoExpansionoContractionoTransformationoIntegrationoRejoinderoRestorationlearning and teaching

34、activitiesoRepetition: The student repeats as utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it.oInflection： One word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated.oReplacement： One word in an utterance is replaced by another.learning and teaching activitiesoRestatement： The student rephrases an ut

35、terance and addresses it to someone else, according to instructions.oCompletion： The student hears an utterance that is complete except for one word, then repeats the utterance in completed form.oTransposition： A change in word order is necessary when a word is added.learning and teaching activities

36、oExpansion： When a word is added it takes a certain place in the sequence. oContraction： A single word stands for a phrase or clause.oTransformation： A sentence is transformed by being made negative or interrogative or through changes in tense, mood, voice, aspect, or modality.learning and teaching

37、activitiesoIntegration： Two separate utterances are integrated into one.oRejoinder： The student makes an appropriate rejoinder to a given utterance. oRestoration: The student is given a sequence of words that have been selected from a sentence but still bear its basic meaning. He uses these words wi

38、th a minimum of changes and additions to restore the sentence to its original form. He may be told whether the time is present, past, or future. Hints for using Audio-Lingual drills in L2 teachingoDrills should be conducted as rapidly as possible so as to insure automaticity and to establish a syste

39、m.oUse hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to cue response. You are a choir director.oUse normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.oIntersperse short periods of drill (about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom.Hints for

40、using Audio-Lingual drills in L2 teachingoIntroduce the drill in this way: a. Focus (by writing on the board, for example) b. Exemplify (by speaking model sentences) c. Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is needed) d. DrilloArrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of

41、 student response. Thus: imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last. Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response TPR was developed by American psychologist James Asher from the mid-1960s. It attempts to combines information and skills through physical activity. This m

42、ethod is connected with the linguist theory of structuralism. Apart from the linguistic theory, this method also draws from several traditions including developmental psychology, learning theory and humanistic pedagogy.The principal featuresoLanguage items are presented as orders, commands and instr

43、uctions requiring a physical response from the learners. Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information.oListening comprehension comes first. Students will speak when they are ready. oIt is suitable at the very first stage of learning and has enjoyed some popularity due t

44、o its emphasis on the role of comprehension.TechniqueoThe teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action. oThe teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students perform the action. oThe teacher says the command but only students perform the actionoThe teacher tells one stude

45、nt at a time to do commands. oThe roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.oThe teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.How to use TPR in middle school classroomGo in “series”oI walk toward the door.oI draw n

46、ear to the door. oI draw nearer to the door.oI get to the door.oI stop at the door.oI stretch out my arm.oI take hold of the handle.oI open the door.oI pull the door.oThe door moves. oThe door turns on its hinges.oThe door turns and turns.oI open the door wide.oI let go of the handle.Simon saysWho i

47、s Simon?: Simon is a king. He is very big and very strong. You must do what Simon says.How: When Simon says, “Touch your mouth.” You must touch your mouth, or you will be out.o这个游戏也可以用竞赛的形式进行，可将全班分成若干小组，每组抽一名学生，一起到前面做动作，做错了就被淘汰，最后剩下的一人或两人为优胜，给该组记10分。然后各组再抽另一名学生到前面来，游戏继续进行。o如果教师在发出指令前没有说“Simon says”，

48、学生则不做此动作。例如：教师说“touch your nose”，而学生做了摸鼻子的动作，便算错了，要扣分。 Touch youro将所学身体部位的词写在卡片上，每张卡片写一个单词。将所有卡片分成两叠，正面朝下，请学生上来抽卡。例如，学生A摸到nose和knee，则老师说：“Touch your nose with your knee.” 或者：“Touch your knee with your nose.”o还可以一叠卡片是身体部位，另一叠卡片是教室里的一种物品。如“Touch your desk with your hair.”Freeze！o老师说：“Freeze！” 全班同学必须将动

49、作“定格”下来，除了眼睛，任何身体部位都不许动，必须保持老师说“Freeze！”时的姿势。老师可表扬那些在听到“Freeze！”的一刹那最有创意的定格动作。然后老师说：“You may move your hands now” 或“You may move your head now”等等，学生听指令依次活动某一部位，以此复习身体各部位的单词。 The Silent Way (1960s-2000s)围椅子转 o4把椅子背靠背摆在一起，5名学生围着椅子转圈，老师放音乐并用walk, run, hop, jump, touch your head, touch your shoulders 等喊

50、口令。那5名围着椅子转的学生按口令做相应的动作。当老师突然将音乐停下来时，他们必须马上坐到椅子上，没有抢到椅子的学生出局。拿走一把椅子，剩下的4人照上述规则继续游戏。依此类推，坚持到最后的学生获胜。The Silent Way (1960s-2000s) This method is devised by Galeb Gattegno in the USA from the early 1970s. It is based on the premise that teachers should be silent as much as possible in the classroom and

51、 learners should be encouraged to produce as much as language as possible. This method shows its value in pair work, group discussion where the teacher keeps silent and acts as a listener and observer. At the same time, the learners are frequently silent so that they can have time to discover, analy

52、ze, test and remember the language being taught. The principal featuresoTeaching should be subordinate to learning. It emphasizes on the primacy of learning over teaching.oLearning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned. It views le

53、arning as a problem-solving, creative and discovering activity.oLearning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.oStudents are expected to become independent, autonomous, and responsible, that is a good problem

54、solver of language. It focus on the self of the learner. Benjamin FranklinoTell me, and I forget;oTeach me, and I remember;oInvolve me, and I learn. Community language learning (1960s-2000s) Community language learning (1960s-2000s) Developed by Charles Curran in the USA from the mid-1970s, the teac

55、her is at the learners service, to help them achieve their own goals. Learning is seen as personal growth and self-development, not the achievement of objectives imposed from outside by the teacher or the institution. It has no syllabus. It is the learners who create the syllabus according to their

56、own interests and concerns. Its basic premise can be found in the acronym SARD: S stands for security, A represents attention or aggression, R equals retention and reflection, and D denotes discrimination.The principal featuresoIt centers on learners and stresses the humanistic side of LL and help s

57、tudents to be themselves, to accept themselves and to be proud of themselves.oPlace unusual demands on language teachers. Teachers should be proficient enough in both Chinese and the target language.oLearners use volunteered comment as a way of introducing discussion or as a stimulus for interaction

58、.oCLL syllabus emerges from the interaction between the learners expressed communicative intention and the teachers reformulation of these into suitable target language utterance.Types of learning and teaching activities:oTranslationoGroup workoRecordingoTranscriptionoAnalysisoReflection and observa

59、tionoListeningoFree conversation Types of learning and teaching activities:oTranslation Learners form a small circle. A learner whispers a message or meaning he or she wants to express, the teacher translates it into the target language, and the learner repeats the teachers translation.oGroup work L

60、earners may engage in various group tasks, such as small group discussion of a topic, preparing a conversation, preparing a story that will be presented to the teacher and the rest of the class.oRecording Students record conversations in the target language.oTranscription Students transcribe utteran