胡壮麟名词解释问题详解

1、胡壮麟语言学教程名词解释课后答案Define the following terms:1. design feature:are features that define our human Ianguages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displaceme nt,cultural tran smissi on, etc.2. function : the use of Ianguage tocommunicate,to think ,etc.Language functions inclucle imfor mative fun cti

2、o n,in terpers onal fun ctio n,performative function ,i nterpers onal fun ctio n,performative fun cti on, emotive function, phatic com munion, recreati onal fun ctio n and metali ngual fun cti on.3. etic : a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike' s distinction o

3、f phon etics and phon emics.Be ing etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in li n guistics proper.4. emic : a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike' s d

4、istinction of phon etics and phon emics.A n emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than viaqppeal to the investigator' s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. s ynchronic:a kind of descripti o

5、n which takes a fixed in sta nt(usually,but not n ecessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachr onic :study of a Ian guage is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive : the study of a Ianguage is carried through the course of its histor

6、y.8. prescriptive : a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e. laying dow n rules for Ian guage use.9. descriptive : a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human Ianguage,which refers to the face that

7、 the formsof lin guistic sig ns bear no n atural relati on ship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human Ianguage,which refers to the property of having two I evels of are composed of eleme nts of the sec on dary .I evel and each of the two levels has its own prin ciples of orga ni

8、zatio n.12. displacement: one design feature of human Ianguage,which means human Ianguage enable their users to symbolize objects,eve nts and con cepts which are not prese nt c in time and space,at t he mome nt of com muni catio n.13. phatic communion : one function of human Ianguage,which refers to

9、 the social interaction ofIan guage.14. metala nguage : certa in kinds of lin guistic sig ns or terms for the an alysis and descripti onof particular studies.15. macroli nguistics: he in teract ing study betwee n Ian guage and Ian guage-related discipli nes such as psychology,sociology,eth no graph,

10、scie nee of law and artificial in tellige nee etc.Bra nches of macroli nguistics in clude psycholi nguistics,socioli nguistics,a nthropological li nguistics,et16. compete nee: Ian guage user ' s un derly ing kno wledge about the system of rules.17. performanee : the actual use of Ianguage in con

11、crete situation.18. Ian gue: the lin guistic compete nee of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articula

12、tio ns are in voIved.CoarticuIati on can be further divided into an ticipatory coarticulati on and per severative coarticulati on.22. Voicing : pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23. Broad and n arrow tran scripti on: the use of a simple set of s

13、ymbols in tran scripti on is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called bro ad tran scriptio n;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phon etic detail is referre d to as n arrow tran scriptio n.24. Consonant: are sound segme nts produced by

14、con strict ing or obstruct ing the vocal tra ct at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25. Pho neme: the abstract eleme nt of soun d, ide ntified as being dist inctive in a partic ular Ian guage.26. Alloph on e:a ny of the differe nt forms of a phon

15、eme(eg.<th>is an alloph one of /t/in En glish.Whe n /t/occurs in words like step,it is un aspirated<t>.Both<th>a nd <t>are allopho nes of the phon eme/t/.27. Vowl:are sound segme nts produced without such obstruct ion,so no turbule nee of a tot al stopp ing of the air can be

16、perceived.28. Manner of articulati on; in the product ion of consonan ts,ma nner of articulati on refe rs to the actual relati on ship betwee n the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certa in parts of the vocal tract.29. Place of articulati on: in the product ion of conson

17、an ts,place of articulati on refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximati on,n arrow in g,or the obstruct ion of air.30. Dist in ctive features: a term of phono logy,i.e.a property which dist in guishes one ph on eme from ano ther.31. Compleme ntary distributi on: the relati on betwee n t

18、ow speech sounds that n ever occurin the same en viro nmen t.Alloph ones of the same phon eme are usually in compleme ntary distributio n.32. IPA: the abbreviati on of Intern ati onal Phon etic Alphabet,which is devised by the In ternational Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a numbe

19、r of revisions.lPA is a c omprised system emplo ying symbols of all sources,such as Roma n small letters,italics uprighted, obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33. Suprasegme ntal:suprasegme ntal featuresare those aspects of speech that in volve more than single sound segments.The principa

20、l supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,and inton ati on.34. Suprasegme ntal:aspects of speech that in volve more tha n sin gle sound segme nts.The p rinciple suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest un it of Ian guage in terms of relati on

21、 ship betwee n expressi on a nd conten t,a unit that cannot be divided into further small un its without destro ying or drastic ally altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compo undoly morphemic words which con sist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,s no ww

22、hite,etc.37. in flect ion: the mani festati on of grammatical relati on ship through the additi on of inflecti onal affixes,such as nu mber,pers on,fin ite ness,aspect and case,which do not cha nge the gra mmatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the

23、type of formative that can be used only whe n adde d to ano ther morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivati on: differe nt from compo un ds,derivati on shows the relatio n betwee n roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be an alyzed without total lass ofiden tity.41. al

24、lomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differe ntly in differe nt environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ i ndogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or comb in

25、 ati on of morphemes to which an in flecti onal affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an eleme nt of meaning which is structurally depe ndent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in“ dog' s”.44. free morpheme: an eleme nt of meaning which takes the form of an in depe ndent word.

26、45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.” dog in the manger )46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a Ianguage assigned to various lexical categories and provided with sema ntic in terpretati on.47. grammatical word: word express ing grammatical meanin gs,such conj u

27、nction, prepositi ons, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word havi ng lexical meanin gs,that is ,those which refer to substa nce,action and quality,such as noun s,verbs,adjectives,a nd verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as noun s,verbs,adje

28、ctives,a nd many adverbs.50. ble nding: a relatively complex form of compo undin g,i n which two words are ble nded byjoining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the in itial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and mea

29、ning are borrowed with only a slight adaptati on ,i n some cases,to eh phono logical system of the new Ian guage that they en ter.52. loa nble nd: a process in which part of the form is n ative and part is borrowed, but t he meaning is fully borrowed.53. lea nshift: a process in which the meaning is

30、 borrowed,but the form is n ative.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the n ame of an orga ni zati on, which hasa heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappeara nee of the very sound as a morpheme in the phono logical system.56. back-formatio n: an abno rmal type of word-formati on

31、 where a shorter word is derivedby delet ing an imagi ned affix from a long form already in the Ian guage.57. assimilati on: the cha nge of a sound as a result of the in flue nce of an adjace nt sound,which is more specifically called.” con tact ” or ” con tiguous ” assimilati on.58. dissimilati on:

32、 the in flue nce exercised.By one sound segme nt upon the articulati on ofano ther, so that the sounds become less alike,or differe nt.59. folk etymology: a cha nge in form of a word or phrase,result ing from an in correct popular n ati on of the origi n or meaning of the term or from the in flue nc

33、e of more familiar terms mistake nly take n to be an alogous60. category:parts of speech and function, such as the classificati on of words in terms of parts of speech,the ide ntificati on of terms of parts of speech,the ide ntificati on of function s of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. co

34、n cord: also known as agreeme nt,is the requireme nt that the forms of two or more words in a syn tactic relati on ship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syn tagmatic relati on betwee n one item and others in a seque nce,or betwee n eleme nts w hich are all prese nt.63. pa

35、radigmatic relati on: a relatio n holdi ng betwee n eleme nts replaceable with each oth er at a particular place in a structure,or betwee n one eleme nt prese nt and he others abse nt.64. immediate con stitue nt an alysis: the an alysis of a sentence in terms of its immediateconstituents-word groups

36、(or phrases),which are in trun an alyzed into the immediate con stitue nts of their own,and the process goes on un til the ultimate con stitue nts are reached.65. en doce ntric con struct ion: one con struct ion whose distributi on is fun cti on ally equiva lent,or approaching equivalence,to one of

37、its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.He nee an en doce ntric con struct ion is also known as a headed con structi on.66. exoce ntric con structi on: a con structi on whose distributi on is not function ally equiv ale nt to any to any of its con stitue nts.67. deep struct

38、ure: the abstract represe ntati on of the syn tactic properties of a con stru ction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage i

39、n the syn tactic derivatio n of a con struct ion,which closely corresp onds to the structural orga ni zati on of a con struct ion people actually produc e and receive.69. c-comma nd: one of the similarities,or of the more gen eral features, in these two gov ernment relatio ns,is tech ni cally called

40、 con stitue nt comma nd,c-comma nd for short.'s TG70. gover nment and binding theory: it is the fourth period of developme nt ChomskyGrammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utteranee.71. com muni cative dyn amism: the exte nt to which the sentence eleme nt

41、con tributes to the developme nt of the com muni cati on.72. ideatio nal function: the speaker' s experie nee of the real world,i nclud ing the innerworld of his own con scious ness.73. in terpers onal fun ctio n: the use of Ian guage to establish and main ta in social relations: for the express

42、i on of social roles,which in clude the com muni cati on roles created by Ian guag e itself;a nd also for gett ing thi ngs don e,by means of the in teracti on betwee n one pers on and an other.74. textual function: the use of Ian guage the provide for making links with itself and with features of th

43、e situati on in which it is used.75. con ceptual meaning: the cen tral part of meaning, which contains logical,cog nitive,or deno tative content.76. deno tatio n: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phe nomena in thereal world.77. conno tati on: a term in a con trast with deno ta

44、ti on, mea ning the properties of the entity a word deno tes.78. referen ce: the use of Ian guage to express a propostio n, mea ning the properties of the en tity a word deno tes.79. referen ce: the use of an guage to express a propositi on ,i.e. to talk about things in con text.80. sen se: the lite

45、ral meaning of a word or an expressi on ,i ndepe ndent of situati onal con text.81. synonymy: is the tech ni cal n ame for the same ness relati on.82. comple ntary antonymy: members of a pair in compleme ntary antonymy are compleme ntaryto each field completely,such as male,female,abse nt.83. gradab

46、le anton gymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as Ion g:short,big;small,fat;th in, etc.84. con verse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not con stitute a positive-n egative oppositi on, such as buy;sell,le nd,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relati onal opposites:c

47、on verse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,ki nship relati ons,temporal and spatial relati on s.There are always two en tities in volved. One presupposes the other.The shorter,better;worse.etc are in sta nces of relati onal opposites.86. hyp onymy: a relati on betwee n tow words,in which the meani

48、ng of one word(the superordin ate)is in cluded in the meaning of ano ther word(the hyp onym)87. superord in ate: the upper term in hyp ony my,i.e.the class n ame.A superord in ate usuallyhas several hyp ony ms. Un der ani mal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. sema ntic comp onent: a dist

49、in guishable eleme nt of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+huma n>89. compositi on ality: a prin ciple for sentence an alysis, in which the meaning of a sente nee depe nds on the meanings of the con stitue nt words and the way they are comb in ed.90. selectio n restrictio n:sema ntic rest

50、rictio ns of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a huma n subject.91. prepositi on al logic: also known as prepositi onal calculus or senten tial calculus,isthe study of the truth con diti ons for propositi on s:how the truth of a composite propositi ons and

51、the connection betwee n them.92. propositi on; what is talk about in an uttera nce,that part of the speech act which hasto do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilati on theory: Ian guage(so un d,word,s yn tax,etc)cha n

52、ge or process by which features of one eleme nt cha nge to match those of ano ther that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the percepti on of spoke n words proposed in the mid-1980s .Itsaaumes a "recog niti on lexic on ” in which each word is represe nted by a full and in depe nde

53、nt” recog ni sti on eleme nt ” .Whe n the system receives the begi nning of a releva nt acoustic sig nal,all eleme nts matchi ng it are fully acticated,a nd,as more of the sig nal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;th

54、isprocess continues un til only one rema ins active.96. con text effect: this effect help people recog nize a word more readily whe n the receding words provide an appropriate con text for it.97. freque ncy effect: describes the additi onal ease with which a word is accessed due toits more freque nt

55、 usage in Ian guage.98. inference in con text: any con clusi on draw n from a set of propositi on,from someth ing some one has said,a nd so on.lt in cludes things that,while not follow ing logically,are implied,i n an ordi nary sen se,e.g.i n a specific con text.99. immediate assumpti on: the reader

56、 is supposed to carry out the progresses required toun dersta nd each word and its relati on ship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encoun tered.100. Ian guage percepti on :la nguage aware ness of things through the physical sen ses,esp,sight.101. Ian guage comprehe nsion: on

57、e of the three stra nd of psycholi nguistic research,which studies the un dersta nding of Ian guage.102. Ian guage producti on: a goal-directed activety,i n the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. Ian guage producti on: a goal-

58、directed activity,i n the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity expla ined by refere nce to lexical meanin gs:e.g.that ofI saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macropropositi on:gen eral propositi ons used to form an overall macrostructure of thestory.106. modular:which a assumes that the mi nd is structuied into separate modules or comp onen ts,each gover ned by its own prin ciples and operat ing in depe nden tly of oth