研究生英语段落写作jsp

1、第一节时间空间顺序法1、讲述故事或叙述事件时，最简单最清楚的方法就是按照时间顺序来描述事情的发展 过程：先发生的先写，后发生的后写。例如：1) the last person to approach the couple was a short, elderly woman who smiled as she congratulated them not by name but as hwifeh and "husband："i'm aunt esther gubbins,h she said. nfm here to tell you you are going

2、to live a good life and be happy you will work hard and love each othc匚”then quickly, for such a short, portly, elderly person, she disappeared.2) one evening her husband had fallen asleep while reading a spy novel. she wrote a note on the envelope and left it on his book: ”husband，i have gone next

3、door to help mrs. norton with her sick children/1the next morning she saw he had written below her message: ”wife, i missed you. you thought i was asleep, but i was just resting my eyes and thinking about that peculiar woman who talked to us in church a long time ago. it has always seemed to me that

4、 she was the wrong shape for a heavenly messenger. anyway, ifs time to stop wondering whether she came from heaven or a nearby town. what matters is this: whoever she was, aunt esther gubbins was right/*请看以下段落分析：sandy walked into the bathroom and turned on the showe匚 at first, the water felt cold. i

5、t helped her wake up. then, as the water got hotter, she thought, ”this shower feels great and in here i can be alone and sing no one disturbs me in here.” she grabbed the soap and washed thoroughly, including her hai匚 if she stayed in the shower too long, her mom or dad usually banged on the door t

6、o rush her so she grabbed a towel and dried off.in the paragraph, the author describes sandy's series of actions according to the order of the sequence: the first thing first and the second thing second. here is a chart of the first few sentences just to show sandy's actions that have been l

7、inked together with time markerstime markerssequenced actionssandy walked into the bathroom.andturned on the showe匚at first,she woke up with the help of the cold wate匚then,she thought.常见的病例评析：病例一：when we came back from the store that christmas eve, i realized i had been given too much change from my

8、 final purchase. i showed the money to my brother and then to my fathcr. my father didn't like it and he made me give back the money. my brothers and sisters all laughed at me. 1 should have returned the money myself without father's having to tell me.上而这篇短文试图叙述作者生活中发生的一件重要事情，但原文中有许多不足之处。文 章

9、中没冇对话，没冇高潮，只是对故事进行了简单的描写，忽略了许多重要的细节。读者在 读完文章后，不但对作者所描述的故事理解不清，反而会有很多费解之处。修改时要明确讲 故事的目的，并且应该在必要之处用具体的细节把故事形象地再现给读者。修改稿：when the salesclerk gave me back my change, i thought she had given me too much. at age six, i didn't count money very well, and so when we got home, i showed the coins to my bro

10、ther."i gave her fifty ccntsjl said, "and she gave me this："that is sixty cents/5 he said in admiring voice i seldom heard from him. "you are smarter than i thought.” beaming with pride, chortling over my new fortune, i went sailing in to my father to receive his praise“the sales

11、clerk gave me too much change： i saidwith deliberation, he went over all my purchases with me. he examined my dog-eared christmas list and the sales slips "get your coat：' he said.the news flashed through the house, and, as my father and i prepared to leave, my brother and sisters hid behin

12、d the banisters and silently mocked me.“honor." my father said as he closed the front door."honesty. he said as we walked to the car. "fairness” he said as he started the ca匚 “these arc virtues without which civilization cannot endure. "money/ he went on as wc backed away from th

13、e curb, "may threaten virtue but must never be allowed to defeat it. let this be a lesson to you： and in turn it was, though 1 could not have said in what.修改后，读者可以对人物的活动和谈话的细节有了清晰的了解。故事的意义耐人寻味, 给作者幼小的心灵留下了深刻的印象。病例二：getting up in the morning, i liked to take a walk- it was raining, but not heavi

14、ly drop by drop, it dropped on my head i felt 1 was in high spirits along the path, there are many flowers which put their heads up to absorb their drinks they had been washed up completely. their appearance showed freshly and lively. how lovely they look! and i was refreshed and forgot all my troub

15、les and unhappy events记叔文中叙述过去发生的事情要用过去时，但表示经常反复发生的事情应用一般现在 时。另外，上文中还有几处用词上的错误。修改稿：i like taking a walk after getting up in the morning. but one day, it started to rain when i was walking. drop by drop, the rain fell on my head. walking in the rain, i was in high spirits along the path, i saw many l

16、ittle yellow flowers which put their heads up to absorb their drinks. they had been completely washed, appearing fresh and lively. 1 had also been refreshed, forgetting all my troubles and unhappy events2、我们在描述某空间吋，不管此空间大小如何，都得按照一定的空间顺序來描述不同 的部位或细节。因此，我们应该找出所描述事物z间的空间关系，从而安排写作顺序，如果 描述方法混乱，则会使读者感到迷惑不

17、解。请看以下段落分析：1) in the middle of the rectangular-shaped courtyard stood three magnolia trees, all in full bloom. a little girl was hopping among them, now gazing at a bud, now collecting fallen petals. under one of the trees stood her parents, who, while keeping an eye on her, were examining the milk

18、white blossoms with great interest and admiration. in front of another tree a young couple, fresh and bright as the flowers, were posing for a picture. at one end of the courtyard a group of youngsters had gathered behind an artist painting a flourishing limb, which looked so charming and real that

19、a boy stooped to sniff at a half-open flower. at the opposite end a few elderly men and women stood admiring the leafless flowering trees and the people looking at them.该段中，作者从院中心的树木着手，描述树下及树周围的人（女孩，她的父母及一对年 轻夫妇），然后描述庭院两边离树木鮫远的人们（艺术家及其身后的年轻人，年长的老人和 妇人）。简而言之，该段屮作者按照由近及远，由屮心到边远的顺序来进行描述。2） mr. cook, a

20、renowned american historian, arranges the books on his bookshelves in a unique way. in the upper right hand comer, there arc books about the development of the early colonies in new england and the war of independence. right under them can be found books on the slave trade, the plantation system and

21、 the growth of the southern states. the left side of the shelf contains hundreds of books concerning subjects of the westward movement, indian culture, the cowboys' contributions to american society and the gold rush in california. from the description above, one can see that m匚 cook regards his

22、 bookshelves as a map of the u.s. and arranges his history books accordingly. it is odd, but it is convenient.该段屮，作者对于书的排放的描述既简单乂清楚，根据描述，读者很容易就能找到书的 位置。作者在此段中采用山上到下，由左到右的顺序来进行描述。常见的错误评析： 病例一our classroom is on the third floor of the teaching building. it is a large room about twenty feet long and te

23、n feet wide. under the window, there are two radiators for heating in the wintertime the walls are light green and the ceiling is white. on the opposite walls, near one end there is a brown doo匚there arc about forty light-colored chairs in the room for the students. the teacher's desk is in fron

24、t of the blackboard. there is a large blackboard on the front wall of the room with chalks and erasers on the ledge on the whole, it is a pleasant and comfortable room. we study in this classroom everyday.上面这篇描写文违反了空间顺序写作法的原则，给人一种杂乱无章的感觉。修改稿：our classroom is on the third floor of the teaching buildi

25、ng. it is a large room about twenty feet long and ten feet wide. the walls are light green and the ceiling is white on the front of the wall, there is a large blackboard with chalks and erasers on the ledge on its left, there is a brown door. on its right, there are two large windows, under which th

26、ere are two radiators for heating in the winter- time.there are about forty light-colored chairs in the room for the students, and the teachers desk is in the front of the room. on the whole, it is a pleasant and comfortable room, in which we study every day. we like this foom.第二节定义法定义是通过准确的文字把某一事物的

27、属性、特征、功能等解释清范。下定义的最大困难 是要搞清楚被定义的概念，然后组织好定义所必要的信息，最后选择准确的语言文字来表达 它。定义常见于科技文献，同时它又是说明文屮不可缺少的。一般说来，文章的专业性越强, 读者的专业知识越少，那么需要定义的概念可能就会越多。因此，了解如何写定义是很有必 耍的。那么，如何下定义呢？通常情况下，有四种下定义的方法。第一，利用特性、功能来下定义。如：an axe is used for cutting wool.a tiger has black and orange stripes and is mostly found in india.第二，结合类别来下

28、定义。一般是把用途和特性结合起来，给出清楚明了的定义。如： an axe is a kind of tool used for cutting wool.a tiger is an animal with black and orange stripes that is mostly found in india.第三，通过举例来下定义。这种下定义方法不太严谨，只是列举岀此时此地头脑屮想 到的有关具体实例罢了。如：chairs, tables, sofas and wardrobes一these arc all examples of what we mean by furniture.第四，

29、使用否定词来下定义。如：by "patriot i do not mean someone who says, "my country is right or wrong： by "patriof i mean a lover of his country who will defend it to the death when it is right, but will also be the first to criticize it when it is wrong.一个好的定义町以只使用其中的一种方法，也可以同时使用几种，甚至全部四种方法。1、定义+举例常

30、用的举例表达式有：common/typical examples are., main types are., such as. 等。 例女口： an acid is a compound which neutralizes （使中和）a solution of sodium hydroxide （氢氧化钠）.common examples are sulphuric （硫的）and nitric （氮的） acid.酸是中和氢氧化钠溶液的化合物，常见的有硫酸和硝酸。2、定义+用途常用的表达式有：therefore/consequently/as a result, it is widely

31、used for.或者 one of its main uses is 等。例如：aluminium is a metal which is light in weight. therefore, it is used for making aircraft.铝是一种很轻的金属，因此被用来制造飞机。3、定义+主要部件常用的表达式有：it consists of its main components are.等。例如：a pair of spectacles is a device for correcting eye-sigh匸 it consists of three main parts

32、: a lens for each eye and a frame.眼镜是矫正视力的器具，由三个主要部件组成：两只镜片和 一个镜框。下面我们读一篇下定义的范文，以了解它在文章中是如何使用的。the word histoiy has several meanings. in its broadest sense, it denotes the whole of the human past. more restricted is the notion that history is the recorded past, that is, that part of human life which

33、 has left some sort of record such as folk tales, artifacts, or written documents. finally, history may be defined as that which historians write about the past.本段堪称卞定义写作的典范。在这个段落里，作者使用了许多下定义时所需要的套语, 如：has several meanings （有好儿个意思），in its broadest sense, it denotes （从最广义上讲， 它的意思是指）,more restricted i

34、s the notion that （较为狭义的意思是）,that is （也即）,such as （诸如）,may be defined as （可以界定为）等等。这些套语使得该段衔接自然，连贯通顺， 层次分明，从而把history这个词解释的清清楚楚。需要注意的是，在下定义时，切不可犯以下两种错误：1）举例代替定义。举例必须出现在定义z后，但决不能以举例代替定义。例如：a dictionary is a book like collins english dictionary.词典是类似柯林斯英语词典那 样的书。这种以举例来给词典下定义的方法不能把词典的特色与功能解释清楚，不知道柯林 斯英

35、语词典的人仍不清是词典的确切含义。因此，上句不妨改为：a dictionary is a book which explains the words of a language and is arranged in alphabetical order.词典是解释某种语言的词汇并按字母顺序排列的书。2）省略类属词或特别局性。定义因省略了类属词或特别属性而变得不完整。例如：a. an ammeter is used to measure electric current.安培计是用來测量电流的。b. a degree is given by a university to a student w

36、ho has passed the appropriate examinations. 学位是由人学颁发给通过相关考试的学生。显然上述两句小省略了总类词或特别属性，因此定义不完整或不能称作定义，可分别 改为:a. an ammeter is an instrument which is used to measure electric current. 安培tl是用來汝!寸 量电流的仪表。b a degree is an academic qualification which is given by a university to a student who has passed the a

37、ppropriate examinations.学位是由人学颁发给考试合格学生的学术资格证明。相关练习1. the following eight sentences have been mixed up. join the sentences on the left with thecon-ect ones on the right.(1) a generator is a machine(2) a biologist is a person(3) a cucumber is a vegetable(4) a shop is a place(5) a knife is an instrume

38、nt(6) a dentist is a person(7) an encyclopedia is booka. who takes care of peopled teeth.b. where things arc bought and sold.c. which attracts bodies towards the centre of the earth.d. which is used for cutting things.e. which produces electricity.f. who studies living organisms.g. which is long and

39、 round with a dark green skin andlight green watery flesh.(8) gravity is a forceh. which gives information on various subjects in alphabetical order.2. complete the following one-sentence definitions.(1) steel is a metal which is .(2) a telescope is an instrument used for.(3) water is a liquid which

40、.(4) a college is an institution where.(5) an english sentence is a piece of language containing.(6) an airport is a place at which(7) a square is a plane figure with(8) cement is a powder with the property of.第三节过程法我们在解释事情的发展过程时，通常按照事悄发生的先后顺序逐步进行描述。由于事 情的发展是逐步进行的，因而描述事情的发展顺序是相当重要的。在此类段落写作中，通常 使用祈使句

41、，以及由不确指代词you做主语的句子，并几整个段落着眼于一般现在时态。例 如：1 once you encounter a person who has stopped breathing, you should begin immediately to do mouth-to-mouth breathing. first, place the victim on his back and remove any foreign matter from his mouth with your fingers then tilt his head backwards, so that his ch

42、in is pointing up. next, pull his mouth open and his jaw forward, pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which you blow into his mouth from escaping through his nose then place your mouth tightly over the victim's blowing into his mouth until you see his chest rise. then turn your head to th

43、e side and listen for the outrush of air which indicates an air exchange repeat the process. 2. it is necessary for a person to know how to post a parcel, since almost everyone has relatives and friends living far away and he may like to send them something. different objects are packed in different

44、 ways things like bottles of medicine and watches should be put into wooden boxes to avoid breakage. after you have packed the objects, put down your address and that of the addressee on the wrapping. give the parcel to the postal clerk for him to check he will then give you a form to fill in having

45、 filled in the form, you give it together with the parcel to the clerk he will weigh the parcel and tell you how much you should pay. you pay the money and get a receipt. be sure to keep your receipt until you are sure that the addressee has received the parcel. if anything wrong should happen to yo

46、ur parcel, you can show the receipt to the clerk and ask to be reimbursed 第七节举例法、列举法1. 列举法(details)列举法是通过列举一系列的论据对topic sentence中摆出的论点进行广泛、全面地陈 述或解释，列举的顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间等进行。yesterday was one of those awful days for me when everything i did went wrong first, i didn't hear my alarm clock an

47、d arrived late for work. then, 1 didn't read my diary properly and forgot to get to an important meeting with my boss during the coffee break, i dropped my coffee cup and spoilt my new skirt. at lunch time, i left my purse on a bus and lost all the money that was in it. after lunch, my boss was

48、angry because i hadnft gone to the meeting then i didnrt notice a sign on a door that said "wet painth and so i spoilt my jacket too. when i got home i couldn't get into my flat because i had left my key in my office so i broke a window to get in and cut my hand.根据本段主题句小的关键词组everything i di

49、d went wrong,作者列举了 8点内容，分别 由 first, then, during the coffee break, after lunch time 等连接词语引 hl,使得该文条理清楚、脉 络分明、内容连贯。常丿ij 丁 列举法的过渡连接词有：for one thing , for another, finally, besides, moreover, one another , still another, first, second, also 等。2. 举例法(example)作者通过举出具体事例来阐述、说明主题句的内容，严格地讲，举例法也是列举法的 种，它们的区别

50、在于：列举法侧重罗列事实，所列事实力求全面；而举例法侧重通过举出 典型事例來解释作者观点，且事例可多可少。我们来看下而这个用举例法展开的段落：there are many different forms of exercises to suit different tastes for example, those who enjoy competitive sports may take up ball games for another example, if they prefer to exercise alone, they can have a run or take a walk

51、 in the morning or in the evening besides, people can go swimming in the summer and go skating in the winter. in short, no matter what their interests are, people can always find more than one sports that are suitable to them.本段采用了三个事例來说明主题句小的关键词组different forms of exercises,这三个例 子分别由连接诃for example,

52、 for another example和besides引出，最后由in short引导的结 尾句总结全段内容。举例法屮常川的连接词有：for example(instance), one example is, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition 等 第四节比较和对照比较和対照是常用的一种写作方法。我们比较当今的中国和过去的中国，东方文化和 西方文化，汉语和英语等等。通过比较和对照，我们能更清楚地了解事物。严格地说，比较是指出两者或两者以上的相同点；而对照则是指出其不同点。但是在 实际通用小，比较和对照往往同时出现，因为一般情况下，我们既要

53、比较二者z间的相似z 处，又要对照其不同z处。比较和対照的目的是为了指出-物优于另一物。在这里需要指出的是，中国学生长期 以來深受“一分为二”观点的影响，力求做到所谓的“客观公正”，抱着凡事各有千秋的态 度，比较或对比之后不做任何评论，结果成了为比较和对比而比较和对比。切记：要把比较 和对比看作是一个段落的扩展方法，而不是写作的ii的。比较和对比的h的不只是指出异同 点或优缺点，更重要的是为了劝说、解释或提供信息。在比较和对比的文章中，侧重点耍么 在比较，要么在对比。运川比较和对照的方法拓展段落时，有两种基本的安排方式。一种是先此后彼式。假 定我们把要比较的两个项目分别称作a和b,那么运用这种

54、方式应该先把所有有关a的情 况叙述完毕z后，再接着讲b的情况。需要注意的是，在这种写作方式中，二者z间比较 和对照的方面要具有同一性，并且要按照相同的顺序来进行写作。用符号表示应为al, a2, a3； bl, b2, b3这种方式也称为整体式比较或整体式对照。另一种是逐项式。如果要比 较的项冃仍然是a和b,那么该模式实际上是a与bz间的来回切换。用符号表示则为： al, bl； a2, b2； a3, b3；.以下段落是逐项式比较的一个典范：arc you aware of the striking similarities between two of the most popular u

55、.s. presidents, abraham lincoln and john f. kennedy? a minor point is that the names lincoln and kennedy both have seven letters. both are remembered for their sense of humor, as well as for their interest in civil rights. lincoln became president in 1860, kennedy in 1960. lincoln's secretary wa

56、s mrs. kennedy; kennedy's secretary was mrs. lincoln. neither man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day on which he was assassinated. lincoln and kennedy were both killed on a friday in the presence of their wives. both assassins, john wilkes booth and lee h

57、arvey oswald, have fifteen letters in their names, and both were murdered before they could be brought to trial. just as lincoln was succeeded by a southern democrat named johns on, so was kennedy. andrew johnson (lincoln's successor) was born in 18()& lyndon johnson (kennedy's successor

58、) was born in 1908. and finally, the same caisson carried the bodies of both men in their funeral processions.这是一个运川逐点分析法展开的一个比较段落。作者在主题句之卜罗列出了肯尼迪 和林肯两位美国总统的十一个共同点。该段体现了逐点分析法条目清晰、比较和对比效呆明 显的优点。如果我们想指出两个人或事物之间的不同而不详细加以讨论的话，通常使用逐项式对 照法，在这种写作方法中，我们只须指出一个人或物的某一特点，然后陈述另一个人或物在 这方面的不同即可。请看下例：the televison

59、western of several years ago differs greatly from the western of today. ten years ago, for example, the swindler or bank robber in a western area could be identified not by the crimes he committed so much as by the color of the clothing he wore一which was black. today the television western reveals the villain by mannerisms and personality. at one time, every western had a superhuman, invincible &quo