工作特征和人格作为人-职务匹配的前提

1、摘要：人-环境匹配研究一直将研究的重点放在匹配这一结果上，但是对匹配的前提和来由却关注甚少。我们这里研究两个主观的人-职务匹配的前提：人格以及工作特征理念。我们假设这两个人格和环境变量能够预测主观的人-职务匹配。两个研究发现了人格、工作特征理念之间的交互作用对主观的人-职务匹配的预测作用。正文：人-环境匹配存在许多定义和概念，包括人与职务、团体、组织、职业在主观上和客观上的匹配。现在研究的重点是人-职务匹配，它过去被忽视，但是它和很多变量都有密切关系。人-环境匹配理论一向的研究重点是在职人员的匹配结果。然而在某种程度上，匹配这一概念的前提以及入职前的匹配被研究者所忽视。理解匹配的前提不仅在概念

2、上有意义，而且对员工招聘实践意义重大。用的是服务业的，而且是三种形式的：面对面、电话、邮件。人-环境匹配的理论基础：人-环境匹配建立在一些理论之上。例如Murray的需要压力论、还有工作适应理论，吸引-选择-摩擦理论，霍兰德的职业性格类型、互动心理学。这些理论的一致之处在于，他们都强调人和周围的环境共同影响行为，而且个体和环境的一致能够产生各种积极的心理效应。涉及到环境，人-环境匹配理论有众多研究层次（例如，职务、组织、职业）。在组织心理学中，研究最多的还是人-组织匹配，而人-职务匹配被轻视。经验主义的研究也证实了人-职务匹配和人-组织匹配之间的区分，这证明了可能人们相对而言，更能感知和组织之

3、间的匹配，或者反之亦然。但是，既然人们选择工作并在特定职位上工作，对人-职务匹配的研究也非常重要。以后的研究要更加关注人-职务匹配的研究。人-职务匹配匹配可以从主客观两个维度来思考。主观的人-职务匹配就是指个人觉得自己在多大程度和这份职业相匹配。例如，员工可能会被问，工作在多大程度上满足了他们的需要和选择。客观的人-职务匹配，侧重于比较员工报告的职业倾向或者职业特征，和实际工作特征的差别。Judge and Cable (1997)，指出，对主观匹配研究的缺乏，已经导致人-组织匹配伦理建构的法理失据。监管这是针对人-组织匹配的，但是也反映了主观的人-职务匹配研究的缺失。这里强调主观感受到的匹配

4、，前提假设是个体自己对匹配的估计作为入职前后的衡量指标来讲，比客观要更接近真实。这在论述工作或组织吸引力的文献中可以找到支持。一些研究人、环境特征相互影响能够预测吸引力，这证明了客观匹配的影响。然而，主观的匹配却可以被看成是这些研究中不能直接看见的调节因素，人与环境之间的相互作用产生匹配的感知，然后发过来预测吸引。这种中介作用在很多研究中都有证实，但总的来说，对个体眼中的环境特征的研究却很少。有一个例外是Judge and Cable (1997)，他们研究了基于个体和组织价值的人-组织匹配，来自于应聘者的报告。现在的研究沿用了这一路径，个体和工作体征都是从个体的角度来测量的，去测量这些是否预

5、测了主观的人-职务匹配。Attraction-Selection-Attrition FrameworkUnderstanding organizational behavior History and OrientationSchneider (1987) asserted that “the people make the place” and that organizational culture, climate and practices are determined by the people in the organization. This theory is closely

6、related to psychology. This theory is part of the socialization process, whereby new members in organizations according tot the framework fit in a specificorganization. For over 100 years discussions are held on the influence of situational variables - such as groups, technology, structure, environm

7、ent - on organizational behavior. Schneider argues that the psychologists have failed to incorporate people types into our theories of organizations. In 1995 the ASA Framework was updated. Schneider already mentioned that the person is particularly important in the organizational context. Schneider

8、et al (1995) now added the dimension that the people are responsible for the structure, processes and culture of the organization. Core Assumptions and StatementsStatement: attributes of people, not the nature of external environment, or organizational technology, or organizational structure, are th

9、e fundamental determinants of organizational behavior (Schneider, 1987). The people are functions of an Attraction-Selection-Attrition cycle. Attraction: People are differentially attracted to careers as a function of their own interests and personality (Holland, 1985). Other signs of attraction are

10、 researched by Tom (1971) and Vroom (1966). They have stated that people search environments that fit by their personality and that people would like to obtain their outcomes by selecting a specific organization. Selection: Organizations select people who they think are compatible for many different

11、 kinds of jobs. In that way organizations end up choosing people who share many common personal attributes, although they may not share common competencies. Attrition: The opposite side of attraction. When people do not fit an environment they tend to leave it. When people leave the environment a mo

12、re homogenous group stays than those were initially attracted to the organization. Implications of the model are 1) the difficulty of bringing about change in organizations: Organizations have great difficulty when trying to change, because they not contain people with the appropriate inclinations.

13、When the environment changes an organization will not be aware and probably not be capable of changing. 2) the utility of personality and interest measures for understanding organizational behavior: It is difficult for an organization to apply these topics for individual employees, who all have diff

14、erent compatibilities. This model makes it clear that reaching conclusions for the best structure more information is needed on the kinds of people working in the organization. 3) the genesis of organizational climate and culture: climate and culture are not easily defined in an organization, most o

15、ften they exist when people share a common set of assumptions, values and beliefs. 4) the importance of recruitment: on personnel selection is paid a lot of attention. Surprisingly, on personnel recruitment, in which way do we communicate on vacancies, is not paid much attention. 5) the need for per

16、son-based theories of leadership and job attitudes. The research on this area is depressing according to Schneider (1987). We believe that the attitudes of people are created by the conditions of the work place. Conceptual ModelNot applicable. Favorite MethodsPredominant qualitative, for example Q-S

17、ort and Survey. For criticism see Edwards (1994) and Edwards and Parry (1993). Scope and ApplicationThis model can be used for better understanding organizations. The ASA model is a critical model on the current situational theories of organizations. The ASA model can help analyzing common thoughts

18、of organizations. ExampleChatman (1989) developed a Q-sort technique with which individuals can reveal their personal values and through which incumbents already at work in organizations can reveal the values of the organization. They (OReilly et al., 1991) show that when the fit of personal values

19、to organizational values to organizational values is high, employees are less likely to turnover. By inference it follows that if people who are fit are more likely to stay in an organization, then over time, the environment will become more homogeneous because similar people will stay in the organi

20、zation and dissimilar ones will leave. 默里的需要-压力理论（Murray'sNeed-PressTheory）由美国心理学家H。默里于1938年倡导的一种人格理论。它以K。勒温在1936年提出的公式为基础，即行为是人与环境的函数：B=f(P.E),同时又受到弗洛伊德人格理论的影响。默里把人格归结为有目的的、动态的、连续的活动模式，这种活动模式贯穿于个体一生的发展之中人格的动力结构是需要，需要是代表脑区力量的构造物，它引起一毓行为反应，使原有紧张的情境向解除紧张的情境转化，并具有定向目的性。默里把需要分为20种，认为人在一定程度上能控制自己的需要状

21、态。但是人在迫求需要时又知觉到压力。默里假设了两种压力：压力和压力。压力意指那些环境刺激,它们能够影响行为的反应,并且可以通过客观的观察来知觉和报告。压力分为两个亚类，即个体的压力和双方认可的压力。前者指每个人对环境所持的共有的解释。人的人格斡旋于个人需要与环境要求之间，也即在协调内外压力的情况下使需要得到满足。后来，心理学家W。B。沃尔什根据默里的Q这一理论模型提出了两个基本的假设：（1）人伤口的心理意义可以从行为中推知，因为需要被看作是有组织的倾向，这种倾向为个体的行为提供了一致性和方向性。有鉴于此，个体的行为可以根据使需要得到满足的能力来得悉。（2）环境的心理意义可以从人体对环境的知觉中

22、推知，因为环境是根据有赖于个体对环境解释的各种压力来定义的。由此可见，需要与压力之间的关系是同态的，但这两个概念不一定是交互的。一种压力以有效的行为来说具有潜力，从而使需要得到满足；但是，一种压力不可能总是为个体所反应或为个体所知觉，因此一种需要也就不可能在所有情境里都能得到满足。在这一理论模型的基础上，默里设计了在心理学界颇有影响的主题统觉测验，简称TAT。他把人的需要和知觉压力与环境在某一行为片断中的相互作用称之为“主题”，人格就是在这种主题中显示出动力性作用的。但是，每个个体具有不同于他人的需要综合体，这种需要综合体与环境中的特定对象相联系，形成了特定的反应形式，这便是“主题倾向性”。主

23、题统觉测验就是从被试与测验刺激相互作用所揭示的主题中推断出这个人的需要及其人格倾向性的特点。这一设想和操作对G。斯滕产生积极的影响。斯滕是当今美国需要-压力理论的主要推崇者。并在这个基础上发展了许多测量工具。他把个体-环境的一致性（也即互补的需要和压力）称作“合成代谢”，而把个体-环境的不一致性（也即非互补的需要和压力）称作“分解代谢”。前者促进自我提高和自我实现，后者阴碍自我提高和自我实现。根据一致性和不一致性这两种分法，斯滕编制了一个以默里的需要分类为基础的需要调查表，包括30个不同的需要-压力变量。该调查表的项目适合大学年龄的被试，活动指标（简称AI）为个体生活目标和行为处理的倾向性，方

24、式是自陈。接着，为了测量环境压力，斯滕又编制了大学特征指标（简称CCT）。这一指标用以评价30种压力，项目适合大学年龄的被试，内容以活动、政策、态度等描述为基础，据说这些内容反映了各种大学环境的特征。在这30种压力中，每一种都与需要调查表中活动指标（AT）测量的互补需要相同，因此把AI与CCT结合起来使用，便可以获得有关个体-环境-一致性的测量。默里极其重视弗洛伊德关于本我、自我和超我的概念，在这个基础上他提出人格结构的第四个方面：自我理想。在自我和超我的问题上，默里和弗洛伊德的观点相一致但在本我问题上，与弗洛伊德有分歧。默里认为，虽说本我是原始的、不能被接受的冲动组织，但它毕竟不像精神分析学

25、所说的是一种非社会的或反社会的，相反，它是人格结构中最基本的能量，是需要和情绪的源泉，有些是社会和自己都能接受的。自我理想指的是个人的希望，即个人对未来某一时刻的自我所持的想法。自我理想与超我有密切关系，它们的一致与不一致是区分正常与异常的标志：在正常人中自我理想与超我一相一致的；在罪犯或精神病患者中，自我理想与超我是不一致的。虽然默里的需要-压力理论具有一定的启发性和实践价值，但仍存在若干局限性，W。B。沃尔什概括了下述几点：1并未注意到学习对行为变化的影响，没有考虑到在处理人与环境的问题量过骈经验和知识的作用。2该理论没有解释需要发展的过程。3该理论很难予以经验广义的检验，主要是因为某些需

26、要-压力量表并不相同。而且，需要-压力的一致性研究尚未支持该理论的基本假设。THE THEORY OF WORK ADJUSTMENTThe Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) describes the relationship of the individual to his or her work environment. TWA was developed as the guiding framework for a program of research in vocational psychology, and this is the area of i

27、ts greatest application today. TWA has led to the development of the instruments and materials as well as a series of research monographs, The Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation.The following statements briefly summarize the main points of the Theory of Work Adjustment as presented in A

28、Psychological Theory of Work Adjustment: An Individual-Differences Model and Its Applications, by René V. Dawis and Lloyd H. Lofquist. Earlier statements of the Theory of Work Adjustment were published as Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation Monograph XV, A Theory of Work Adjustment a

29、nd Monograph XXIII, A Theory of Work Adjustment (A Revision). Work is conceptualized as an interaction between an individual and a work environment. The work environment requires that certain tasks be performed, and the individual brings skills to perform the tasks. In exchange, the individual requires compensation for work performance and certain preferred conditions, such as a safe and comfortable place to work. The environment and the individual must continue to meet each