医学院校研究生英语读与写第三版PPT课件

1、首都医科大学应用语言学系首都医科大学应用语言学系Department of Applied Linguistics Capital Medical UniversityText A Ethical Issues in the Use of Animals in Biomedical ResearchOutline Background informationGlobal analysis of the textDetailed study of the textText structure analysisReference answers to the exercisesBackground

2、 informationIntroduction to the authorRichard R. Sharp Director of Bioethics Research at Cleveland Clinic, Dr. Sharp received his training in philosophy and medical ethics at Michigan State University.Background informationIntroduction to the topicAnimal experiments are widely used to develop new me

3、dicines and to test the safety of other consumer products. Many of these experiments cause pain to the animals involved and reduce their quality of life in significant ways. If it is morally wrong to cause animals to suffer then experimenting on animals produces serious moral problems.Animal experim

4、enters are very aware of this ethical problem and acknowledge that experiments should be as humane as possible. They also agree that it is wrong to use animals if alternative testing methods would produce equally valid results. Background informationA video clip about animal testing for you to warm

5、upBackground informationTwo positions on animal experimentsIn favor of animal experiments: Experimenting on animals is acceptable if (and only if): 1) suffering is minimized in all experiments 2) human benefits are gained which could not be obtained by using other methodsAgainst animal experiments:

6、Experimenting on animals is always unacceptable because: 1) it causes suffering to animals 2) the benefits to human beings are not always valid 3) any benefits to human beings that animal testing provides could be conducted in other ways Background informationHarm versus benefitThe case for animal e

7、xperiments is that they will produce great benefits for humanity, and that it is morally acceptable to harm a few animals.The case against animal testing is that both the level of suffering and the number of animals involved are so high that the benefits to humanity does not provide moral justificat

8、ion. Background informationThe three Rs The three Rs are a set of principles that scientists are encouraged to follow in order to reduce the impact of research on animals. The three Rs are: Reduction, Refinement, and Replacement. Background information1) Reduction:Reducing the number of animals used

9、 in experiments by: I. Improving experimental techniquesII. Improving techniques of data analysisIII. Sharing information with other researchersBackground information2) Refinement:Refining the experiment or the way the animals are cared for so as to reduce their suffering by: I. Using less invasive

10、techniquesII. Providing better medical careIII. Providing better living conditions Background information3) Replacement:Replacing experiments on animals with alternative techniques such as: I. Experimenting on cell cultures instead of whole animalsII. Using computer modelingIII. Studying human volun

11、teersIV. Using epidemiological studiesBackground informationGalen: Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (AD 129c.200), better known as Galen of Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey), was a prominent Roman (of Greek ethnicity) physician, surgeon and philosopher. Arguably the most accomplished of all me

12、dical researchers of antiquity, Galen contributed greatly to the understanding of numerous scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic. Background informationAndrea Vesalius: Andreas Vesalius (31 December 1514 15 Octo

13、ber 1564) was a Flemish anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body). Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He is sometimes also referred to as Andreas Vesal, An

14、dr Vesalio and Andre Vesale. Background informationWilliam Harvey: (1 April 1578 3 June 1657) was an English physician, who described completely and in detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the body by the heart, although blood circulation was described by Ibn al-Na

15、fis earlier in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicennas Canon (1242). After his death, the William Harvey Hospital was constructed in the town of Ashford, several miles from his birthplace of of Folkestone. Background informationClaude Bernard: (12 July 1813 10 February 1878) was a French physiologist

16、. He was the first to define the term Milieu intrieur (now known as homeostasis, a term coined by Walter Bradford Cannon). Historian of science I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University called Bernard “one of the greatest of all men of science.” Among many other accomplishments, he was one of the first

17、 to suggest the use of blind experiments to ensure the objectivity of scientific observations. Background informationJeremy Bentham: (15 February 1748 6 June 1832) was an English philosopher, jurist and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism. Bentham became a leading

18、 theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and a political radical whose ideas influenced the development of welfarism. He advocated individual and economic freedom, usury, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the decriminal

19、izing of homosexual acts. He called for the bolition of slavery and the death penalty, and for the abolition of physical punishment, including that of children. Though strongly in favor of the extension of individual legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights, calling them n

20、onsense upon stilts. Background informationCruelty to Animals Act of 1876: The Cruelty to Animals Act of 1876 was an act passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom which set limits on the practice of, and instituted a licensing system for animal experimentation, amending the Cruelty to Animals A

21、ct 1849. Its long title was An Act to Amend the Law relating to Cruelty to Animals (15 August 1876). The Act was replaced 110 years later by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986.Background informationCruelty to Animals Act of 1876:The Act stipulated that researchers would be prosecuted for c

22、ruelty, unless they conformed to its provisions, which required that an experiment involving the infliction of pain upon animals to only be conducted when the proposed experiments are absolutely necessary for the due instruction of the persons so they may go onto use the instruction to save or prolo

23、ng human life. Background informationCruelty to Animals Act of 1876:Furthermore the Act stated that should the experiment occur, the animal must be anaesthetised, used only once (though several procedures regarded as part of the same experiment were permitted), and killed as soon as the study was ov

24、er. Prosecutions under the Act could be made only with the approval of the Secretary of State. The Act was applicable to vertebrate animals only.Background informationAnimal Liberation Front: The Animal Liberation Front (ALF) is an international, underground, leaderless resistance that engages in il

25、legal direct action in pursuit of animal liberation. Activists see themselves as a modern-day Underground Railroad, removing animals from laboratories and farms, destroying facilities, arranging safe houses and veterinary care, and operating sanctuaries where the animals live out the rest of their l

26、ives. Critics have compared them to terrorists. Background information Please first watch the video clip on Animal Experiments & Ethics on the Internet and then discuss the following topics:1) Is use of animals in biomedical research indispensible? What animals are the most widely used?2) What d

27、o you think is the most humane way to treat the animals used in biomedical research?(Source: http:/ analysis of the textThe author presents major viewpoints during the history on the use of animals in biomedical research and he lists them in time order: ancient time, recent past, nowadays, and futur

28、e. The author shows his own position explicitly. p was morally justifiable in light of the potential health benefits associated with those experiments. (Para. 1)Detailed study of the textpMeaning: was acceptable with respect to moral principles, if the fact is considered that those animal experiment

29、s could help solve a lot of health problems in human beings.pjustifiable: acceptable or correct because there is a good reasonpExample: If a goal is worthy, then any means taken to attain it is justifiable. was morally justifiable in light of the potential health benefits associated with those exper

30、iments. (Para. 1)Detailed study of the textpin light of: considering; according topExample: Im sure that you can sell more this year in light of the good market conditions. were voiced regarding the use of animals in biomedical studies. (Para. 3)Detailed study of the textpMeaning: were expressed as

31、for the use of animals in biomedical research.p voice (vt.): expressp Example: He was chosen to voice their grievance. there was clear moral consensus that the practice of animal vivisection was not unethical. (Para. 3)Detailed study of the textpconsensus : agreement in the judgment or opinion reach

32、ed by a group as a wholep Example: The consensus among the worlds scientists is that the world is likely to warm up over the next few decades. there was clear moral consensus that the practice of animal vivisection was not unethical. (Para. 3)Detailed study of the textpunethical : not adhering to et

33、hical or moral principlesp Example: Its simply unethical to promote and advertise such a dangerous product., fueled anti-vivisection sentiments. (Para. 4)Detailed study of the textpMeaning: helped to encourage people to express their opinions against operating on living animals.p fuel (vt. ): stimul

34、ate; help or encourage to formp Example: Higher salaries helped to fuel inflation. Only human beings were endowed with special capacities, (Para. 5)Detailed study of the textpbe endowed with/ endow sb. with sth.: give; confer upon, bestowp Example: He is endowed with a great musical talent. , which

35、they possessed in virtue of the fact that they had souls. (Para. 5)Detailed study of the textpin virtue of: because of, depending on, according top Example: I eat lots of oranges in virtue of the many vitamins therein. However, called this perspective into question. (Para. 5)Detailed study of the te

36、xtpcall into question: raise doubt; bring into questionp Example: His honesty was called into question. , then the action was subject to moral disapproval. (Para. 5)Detailed study of the textpbe subject to/ be subjected top be subject to 中 subject 为形容词，常常用于指“易受影响；易 疾病”p be subjected to 中 subject 为动词

37、，多用于指“屈从于的支配；遭 受（不幸等）”两者虽然有些微区别，但意思 总体上还是比较接 近的，大多情况下可以互换。 , then the action was subject to moral disapproval. (Para. 5)Detailed study of the textp Examples: Our prices are subject to change from day to day. This area is subject to drought because it doesnt rain here often.Peasants used to be subjec

38、t to the control of the local landowner. The police are subject to the law, just like the rest of us. These breakthrough accomplishments demonstrated in a manner that had not been possible before that time, (Para. 7)Detailed study of the textpin a manner: in a way; in a sensep Example: He blamed me

39、and, in a manner, he was right. These breakthrough accomplishments demonstrated in a manner that had not been possible before that time, that the use of animals in modern (Para. 7)Detailed study of the textpThere are two “that” in this sentence: the first introduces a relative clause modifying “mann

40、er” to show what kind of “manner” it is; while the second introduces a subordinate clause functioning as the object of “demonstrated”. that might befall researchers involved in performing such studies. (Para. 8)Detailed study of the textpbefall: happen top Example: Statistically, Katrina was one of

41、the worst disasters to befall the United States. , amounts to a form of “speciesism”. (Para. 10)Detailed study of the textpamount to: to add up topExample: His investments amount to five million dollars. and that animal pain and suffering should be factored into our moral assessments, (Para. 12)Deta

42、iled study of the textpbe factored into: to be considered, taken into accountp Example: Disabled peoples human rights must be factored into housing benefits when the relevant policy is being made. on balance, the potential benefits of the research in question outweigh the potential harms to animals

43、subjects. (Para. 12)Detailed study of the textpon balance: in generalp Example: I think on balance I prefer the first version of the novel. p in question: under consideration; under argumentp Example: The lady in question is not in the office right now. Others question whether researchers pay enough attention to the justification of the (Para. 14)Detailed study of the textpjustification: something (such as a fact or circumstance) that shows an action to be reasonable or necessaryp Example: The court said that there w