Chapter 3Lexicon

1、Chapter 3 LexiconLexicon = Word nWhat is “word”?3 senses of wordIdentification of wordClassification of wordnThe formation of wordMorpheme and morphology Types of morpheme Inflection Word formationSememe vs. morpheme, and phoneme vs. morphemenLexical changeLexical change proper Morpho-syntactic chan

2、geSemantic change Orthographic changeWhat is “word”?nThree senses of “word” A physically definable unitWord both as a general term and as a specific termA grammatical unit.-See (Hu,2005: 56)nOther factors for word identification:Stability （稳定性）Relative uninterruptibility（相对连续性） A minimum free form.

3、（最小的自由形式）-See (Hu, 2005:57)nClassification of words Word class （词类）（词类）n9 word classes: n., pron., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., int., and art.Grammatical/functional words and lexical/content words Grammatical words （语法词）: conj., prep., art. and pron. Lexical words（词汇词）: n., v., adj., and adv.Closed

4、-class word and open-class word Words with fixed and limited membership, e.g. pron., prep. and conj. etc. （封闭类词） Words with Infinite and unlimited membership, e.g. n., v., adj. and adv.（开放类词）nA few more were introduced, namely,nParticle （小品词）（小品词）Infinitive mark ”to” subordinate units in verbal phra

5、ses, e.g. look back, get by, etc.nAuxiliary（助词）（助词）Negation, inversion, code（语码）, and emphasis.nPro-form（替代形式）（替代形式）Pro-adjective, pro-verb, pro-adverb, and pro-locativenDeterminers (限定词)Pre-determiner, central-determiner, post -determiner. _Morphology nMorphology and MorphemenTypes of morphemenInfl

6、ection nWord formation nSememe vs. morpheme, and phoneme vs. morphemenMorphology and Morpheme nMorphology（形态学）（形态学）nThe study of internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. e.g.Adj.+ -ify verb: purify, amplify, electrify, falsifynA systematic study of morpheme.-See (Hu, 200

7、5:63)Morpheme (词词/语素语素)nthe smallest unit of meaning. nthe smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. e.

8、g. chairman= chair+ man; boys= boy+ -s; purify=pur(e)+-ify-See (Hu, 2005:63)nTypes of Morpheme Free morpheme and bound morpheme Root, affix and stemInflectional affix and derivational affixnFree morpheme and bound morphemeFree morpheme (自由语素自由语素)nThe morpheme that may make up words by themselves. nA

9、ll the mono-morphemic words are free morphemes. nWords consisting wholly of free morphemes are compound（合成词）（合成词）. e.g. sunflowerBound morpheme（粘着语素）（粘着语素）nThe morphemes that must appear with at least another morpheme. e.g. dis- + temper + -ed.-See (Hu, 2005:62)nRoot, affix and stem Root（词根）（词根）nThe

10、 base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. e.g. international. nNotes:All the words contain a root morpheme.A root may also be free or / and bound. English has relatively a few bound root morpheme, e.g. -ceive, -mit, -tain, and cur. etc.A few English roots m

11、ay have both free and bound variants. e.g. child- children-See (Hu, 2005: 62-3) _Affix（词缀）（词缀）nA collective term for the morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). nThe affix is naturally bound. nClassification of affixesprefix, suffix, and infix (中缀).Inflectio

12、nal affix and derivational affix-See (Hu, 2005: 63)Inflectional affix (IA) and derivational affix (DA)nInflectional affixA morpheme that serves to adjust words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical relations as such as number, tense, degree and case. e.g. tables, talks, opened, st

13、rongest, Johns (cf. Hu, 2005:64)nDerivational affixA morpheme that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. e.g. establishment and repaint. (Liu, 2005:329)How do you understand the distinction between IA and DA? Use an example for illustration. nSimila

14、rity: both regarding affixes.nDifferences: the IAs and DAs are different inProductivityMeaning changeConditionPositionSee (Hu, 2005:63-4)Stemnthe morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. nThe stem may be the same as a root. e.g. friendsnA stem may contain a r

15、oot and one, or more than one, derivational affix. e.g. friendship in friendships: friendship= Friend+ -ship+ -s-See (Hu, 2005:63)vMorpheme IdentificationvMorpheme Category IdentificationHomework vI. Term DefinitionsMorpheme MorphologyFree morpheme Bound morpheme Root Stem AffixvII. Brief AnswersHow

16、 do you understand the distinction between IA and DA? Use an example for illustration. nConcerns of Morphology Inflectional morphology(屈折形态学屈折形态学): the study of inflectionsLexical/ derivational morphology(词汇词汇/派生派生形态学形态学): the study of word formation. nInflection(屈折变化屈折变化) Indication of grammatical

17、relationships by adding inflection affixes, such as person, number, finiteness, aspect and case. But the grammatical class of the stem do not change. nWord formation(词语形成词语形成)The process of how words are formed. It includes the COMPOUND and DERIVATION.nCompound 复合复合(词词) The words that consist of mor

18、e than one lexical morpheme; or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. In compounds, the lexical compounds can be of different word classes.It can be further classified into:nEndocentric compound (向心复合词向心复合词): The compound which has a head word. They are usually in the form of

19、Participant +process verb, e.g. pain-killer, bullet-resistant. nExocentric compound (离心复合词离心复合词): The compound which has no head word. e.g. cutthroat, breakthrough.-See （Hu,2005: 65-6）nIn writing, the compound can be a single word (e.g. bodyguard), joined with a hyphen (e.g. traffic-light), or two p

20、arts with an ordinary space (e.g. washing machine).nIn English compounds, the right member always serves as the head, it does not only determine the category of the compound, but also determines the major part of the sense of the compound.nDerivation（派生）（派生）The formation of new words by adding affix

21、es to other words or morphemes. (Richard, 2000:129) It shows the relationship between roots and affix. e.g. nation+ -al nationalnIn contrast with inflections, derivation can make the word class of the original either changed or unchanged. (Hu,2005: 67 )nWord forms come from deviation are relatively

22、large and potentially open. Some words can carry both prefixes and suffixes.nSememe VS Morpheme Sememe (义素义素): the smallest component of meaning. e.g.s: PLURALITYRelationship between sememe and morpheme:n1 morpheme VS 1 sememe: -less: withoutn1 morpheme VS 1 sememe: a-: arise, across, atypicaln 1 mo

23、rpheme VS 1 sememe : in- / im- / un-: not/nonnMorpheme without specific sememe: en-nFunction changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change: e.g. fish: (n./ v.)nMorpheme VS Phoneme Phoneme: the smallest meaningful unit of sound.Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in grammar.Morpho-ph

24、onology (形态音系学形态音系学) nInterface between phonology and morphology nA branch of linguistics, the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the morpheme forms. It studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology. To be exact, Relationship between phonology and mo

25、rphology nA single phoneme VS A single morphemenMultiple phoneme VS A single morpheme ( phonological structure)nAllophone Allomorph (语素变体) : the different phonetic realizations of the same morpheme. In morphemic transcription, they are always put in . e.g. plural morpheme -s -z -izai-i:-n Some morph

26、emic forms represent different morphemes and thus have different sememes. e.g. -s： plurality, 3rd person singular, possessive case Requirements (talk about it later)nMorphemic conditions-See (Hu, 2005: 71)nMorpheme shapes vary according toPhonological conditionednAssimilation nDissimilation: the inf

27、luence of one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sound become less alike or different. Morphologically conditionednAll the allomorphs (语素变体)should have the same sememeshould be in complementary distributionThat have the same sememe must be in parallel formation.-See (Hu,2005

28、:72)Lexical ChangenLexical change proper nMorpho-syntactical change形态句法变化Morphological changeSyntactical changenSemantic changenPhonological changenOrthographic changenLexical change proper 特有的词汇变化Invention 发明法 Blending 混成法Abbreviation 缩写 Acronym 缩略语Back-formation 逆构词法 Analogical creation 类推构词Borrow

29、ing 借词 Invention: introduction of new words to languages. e.g.nKodak, coke, nylon, band-aid, Xerox, Lycra. Blending: a relative complex form of compounding, e.g.nsmoke+ fog smognDigital +computer digicomntrample+ stamp stample Fusion(熔合)- cognitive blendingAbbreviation: clipping（截断法）cutting the init

30、ial or final or both e.g. nBack clippings: Ad(vertisement),exam(ination), lab(oratory), piano(forte) nFore-clippings: (aero)plane, (ham)burger, (heli)copter, (tele)phone nFore and aft- clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive) nnames: Rob for Rob(ert), etcAcronym: the first letters of an organization,

31、 scientific and technological words. e.g. nWB, WTO, VAT, Radar, ASAP, WASP, dink AIDS，PS，etc.Backformation: delete an imaginary affix from a longer form already in language. e.g. neditor editndiagnosis diagnoseBorrowing:nLoan words(借词): a slight change in the borrowed form + meaning nLoan blend (混合借

32、词): partly native form+ fully borrowed meaning e.g. China-townnLoan shift (转移借词): borrowed meaning+ native form e.g. bridgenLoan translation(翻译借词) : a translated equivalent of morpheme or word nMorpho-syntactical change (形态句法变化形态句法变化)Morphological change(形态变化形态变化)nForm of inflectional words: does (d

33、oeth), finds (findeth)nPlural form nYou: Thou/ thee/ yee Syntactical change（句法变化）（句法变化）nHe saw you not. He didnt see you.nSemantic Change（语义变化）（语义变化） Broadening（词义扩大）（词义扩大）: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific to a relative general one. e.g. bird, task Narrowing（词

34、义缩小）（词义缩小）: the original meaning of a word can be narrowed to a specific sense. e.g. girl, liquidMeaning shift（词义转移）（词义转移）: change of meaning that has nothing to do with the generalizations and restriction above. Metaphor works greatly. e.g. bead Class shift（词性变换）（词性变换）: zero-derivation or conversio

35、n to other word classes. e.g. engineer (n. v.)Folk etymology (俗词源俗词源): a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase. e.g. history nPhonological change(音位变化音位变化): the change in sounding leading to changes in form.Loss of sound: disappearance of a sound as a phoneme in the phonolog

36、ical system. e.g. nrock n role, laboratory, 劝业场，派出所Addition: strike sutoraiki()Metathesis (换位作用换位作用): an accepted performance error by changing the sequence of the sounds. e.g. nO.E. M.E.: ax ask, tax taskAssimilation: Theory of least effort e.g.nImpossible, immovable nIrregular, irresponsible nIllo

37、gical, illegal nOrthographic change（正字法变化）（正字法变化）HomeworkvI. Write down the Chinese equivalents and English definitions of the following linguistic terms.Compound Inflection Derivation AllomorphvII. Brief answerThink about the following questions. Choose one of them and write your answer on the exercise book. (ONLY ONE QUESTION!)vExx. 3, 5, 11 and 13. vIII. Discussion What are the possible processes through which new words or expressions can