语言学概论总结

1、信息功能行事/施为功能劝说功能语言学概论总结Chapter 1 In troducti onPart One Definition of language Design features of language Functions of languagePart Two Definition of linguistics The scope of linguistics Important distinctions in linguisticsExercises:1) Which of the following is NOTa distinctive feature of human lan

2、guage ? (2005)A. arbitrariness 任意性B. productivityC. cultural transmission D. finiteness有限性2）The distinction between parole 言语 and langue 语言 was made by. （2006）A. Halliday C. Saussure 索绪尔（瑞士语言学家）B. Chomsky乔姆斯基（美国语言学家，转换生成语法的创始人）D. Bloomfield 布洛姆菲尔德（美国语言学家教育家）考点：语言流派的主要代表人物、四对概念的区分。3) Language is a to

3、ol of communication. The symbol highway closed ” on a high way serves. (2010)A. an expressive function表达功能B. an informative functionC. a performative functionD. a persuasive function考点：语言的基本功能。信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、 感情功能、寒暄功能、娱乐功能。其中最重要的是信息功能4) The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it?&q

4、uot; is.A. informative B. phatic寒暄功能C. directive指示功能D. performativeWhat is Ian guage?P7-8Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。1) Language is a system.Systematic - rule-governed 受规则制约的 ,elements in it are arranged

5、according to certain rules； can 'be combined at will. E.g. *bkli , *I apple eat.2) Language is arbitrary.Arbitrary - no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes 表示.E.g. pen" by any other name is the thing we use to write with.3) Language is symbolic 符号的 in nature.Symbo

6、lic - words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention 惯例.A rose by any other name would smell as sweet"-by Shakespeare4) Language is primarily vocal.Vocal - the primary medium基本媒介 is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.5) Language is human-sp

7、ecific. 语言是人类特有的 Human-specific - different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. E.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.1.2.2 The desig n/defi ning features of human Ianguage (Charles Hockett): P8-101) Arbitrariness 任意性2) Productivity/Creativity创造性3) Duality 二重性4) Displaceme

8、nt 移位性5) Cultural transmission文化传递性1) Arbitrariness - No logical (motivated有积极性的 or intrinsic固有的)connection between sounds and meanings. Somecompound words are not entirely arbitrary , e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner,photocopy Apes e ? p gibber 'd? b?.猴子唧唧叫Roosters crow.公鸡喔喔叫Hens c

9、luck. 母鸡咯咯嗒Chicks peep. 小鸡唧唧唧Bulls bellow. Cows moo.老牛哞哞哞Ducks quack kw ? k.鸭子嘎嘎嘎Cats mew.小猫喵喵叫Frogs croak.青蛙呱呱呱Goats bleat. 小羊咩咩咩Pigs grunt. 小猪呼噜噜Mice squeak skwik. 老鼠吱吱叫Dogs bark. 小狗汪汪叫 Animals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently. English and Ch

10、inese cows sound the same, but not in English andChinese! The arbitrary link between a linguistic sign语言符号 and its meaning, however, is also conventional符合习俗的.2) Productivity / Creativity - Peculiar to 是特有的 human languages , users of language can understand and produce sentences theyhave never heard

11、 before. Language is resourceful资源丰富的 because of itsduality 二元性 and its recursiveness ri'k ?:sivnis 递归性.We can use it to create new meanings. Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly 立即地 understood by people who have never come across 讲得清楚明白 that usage before. The r

12、ecursive nature 递归性 of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences.For instance: He bought a book which was written bya teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who . This is the cat that killedthe rat that ate the malt 麦芽 that lay in the house tha

13、t Jack built.3) Duality (double articulati on)Lower levelsounds (meaningless)Higher levelmeaning (larger units of meaning)二层性是指拥有两层结构这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层 结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。(Lyons, 1981)E. g. b-o-o-k (meaningless segments: lower level, secondary) t Book (meaningful unit: higher level, primary) Questions

14、: Can you think of some other systems with the property of duality? Why is thisproperty generally assumed as central to language? Does animal language have this property? Hierarchy 等级制度 of Ianguage:The secondary level sounds(meaningless)syllablesJJThe primary levelmorphemes(meaningful)wordsphrases s

15、entences ( etc.)4) Displaceme nt Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present (in time and space): real or imaginedmatters in the past, present or future, or in far-away 遥远的places.E. g. A gibbon 长臂猿 never utters 发出 a call about something he ate last year. Animal communication is no

16、rmally under immediatestimulus control ” (直接刺激控制).For instance, awarning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Humanlanguage is stimulus-free . What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus刺激 in the world or any internal state.5) Cultural tran smissi on -Language iscul

17、turally transmitted( throughteaching and learning; rather than by instinct). Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees. The story of a wolf child 狼孩,a pig child shows that a human b

18、eing brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.Fun cti ons of Ian guage:P10-121) referential ,ref ?'ren ? ( ?)l (to convey messageand information)(所指功能，即传达信息)2) poetic p ? 'et ? k (to indulge in language for its own sake)(诗学功能，即享受语言自身的乐趣)3) emotive (to express attitudes,

19、 feelings and emotions)(情感功能，即表达态度，感觉和情感)4) conative 'k ?un?tiv (to persuade and influenceothers through commands and requests)(意动功能，即通过指令和恳求说服和影响他人)5) phatic 'f ? t? k (to establish communion with others)(寒暄功能，即与他人建立交际)6) metalingual ,met ?'li ? g/v?l (to clear up intentionsand meanings

20、).(元语言功能，弄清意图、词语和意义) 注：1) emotive (expressive) function:releasesfeelings. Swear words 骂人话,obscenities 猥亵, exclamation 惊叹词,involuntary verbal言语的reactions.2) phatic function:Good morning. How are you? Halliday 哈利迪Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions元功能思想 of language.Hallidayn terpers onaEn acts

21、 socialrelati on shipsCreates releva nc to con text1.1 What is Lin guistics语言学?P1 The scientific study of human language Aims of linguistic theory:What is knowledge of language? (Competence)Howis knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition) How is knowledge of language put to use?(Performance/langu

22、age processing性能 /语言处理 )1.1.2 Main bran ches of linguisticsP2-3Phonetics发音/语音学Phonology音系/音韵学Morphology 形态学 Syntax 句法Semantics语义学Pragmatics 语用学 The scope of lin guisticsDescriptive vs. prescriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech vs. writingLangue & paroleCompetence and performance1) Descriptive

23、vs. prescriptive Don't say X. People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in在于 prescribing how thingsought to be and describing how things are. Descritptive:the linguists tries to discover andrecord the rules to wh

24、ich the members of a large community actually conform 遵照 and does not seek to impose upon them other rules or norms of correctness. Prescriptive : the grammarians 文法家 tries to laydown制定 rules for the correct use of language and set the disputes over就进行辩论 usage once and for all彻底地.(right / wrong) Hum

25、orous grammar rules :® Never end a sentence with a preposition.® And don't start a sentence with a conjunction.® It is wrong to ever split分离 an infinitive 不定式.® No sentence fragments.2) Synchronic vs. diachronic For example, the ways in which people address others and refer t

26、o themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Joh nny, yours, your obedie nt serva nt 敬上)indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations. A synchronic description takes a fixed instant(usually, but not necessarily, the present) as itspoint of observation. Most grammars areof this kind. Diachro

27、nic linguistics is the study of a languagethrough the course of its history. Synchronic study共时性研究 - description of alanguage at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study历时性研究 - description of alanguage through time (historical development of language over a period of time)diachronic&

28、gt; (historical) lin guisticssynchroniclinguistics3) Speech vs. writing Speech primary medium of language Writing later developed4) Langue 语言 vs. parole 言语(F. de Saussure) Langue the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole the realization of langue in actual

29、use. Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.5) Competence and performance (Chomsky) Competence the ideal user ' knowledge of the rules of his language Performance - the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communica

30、tion Chomskylooks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6) Traditional grammar vs modern linguistics Traditional grammar - prescriptive, written,Latin-based framework Modern linguistics descriptive, spoken, not necessarily L

31、atin-based framework Exercises for Chapter 11. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammarfor it is mostly.A. prescriptive B. descriptive C. subjective D. Latin-based2. A linguist regards the changes in language andlanguage use as.A. abnormal B. something to be fearedC.naturalD. unnatural3.

32、Of the wordsw listed below,is not an Englishword. A. spin B. lkbiC.striktD.desk4. The study of language development at some point intime is generally termed aslinguistics.A. comparative 比较的 B. appliedC. synchronicD. diachronic5. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. bang B. photo C.

33、typewriter D. rumble6. Modern linguistics give priority to speech becauseA. speech sounds are derived from writing systems.B. The spoken form is more basic than the written form.C. Writing precedes speech in English language.D. All the languages today have both spoken and written forms.7. Which of t

34、he following statements is not the concern of sociolinguists?A. The language a person uses reveals his social background.B. There exist social norms that determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion.C. Howdoes the human mind work when they use language.D. To investigate the social

35、 aspects of language.8. Language isin that it makes possiblethe construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.A. systematicB. culturallytransmittedC. intuitive凭直觉获知的D. productive9. studies the internal structure of wordsand the rules that govern their formation.A. Phonology B. Semantic

36、s C. Syntax D. Morphology10. The study of language as a whole is often called lin guistics.A. general B. applied B. generative D. particular11. The fact that different languages have differentof thewords for the same object is a good illustration nature of language.A. productive B. dual C. arbitrary

37、 D. displacing12. Which of the following is not a major branch of linguistics?A. phonetics B. phonology C. speech D. syntax13. The application of linguistic theories andprinciples to language teaching is.A. computational linguisticsB. anthropologicallinguisticsC. mathematical linguisticsD. applied l

38、inguistics14. Modern linguistics regards the written language asA. primary B. correct C. secondaryD. stable15. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as morebasic than writing, because.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of th

39、e amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above16. A historical study of language is astudy oflanguage.A. synchronic B. diachronic C. prescriptive D. comparative17. Saussure took a (n)view of language,while Chom

40、sky looks at language from a pointof view.A. sociological,psychologicalB. psychological,sociologicalC. applied, pragmatic D. semantic and linguistic18. According to F. de Saussure,refers to theabstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langue

41、D. Language19. The details of any language system is passed on fromone generation to the next through, rather thanby instinct.A. learning B. teaching C. books D. both A and BObjectives ( 教学目的): To draw your attention to the areas of the phonetic study. To assist you to know more about theInternation

42、alPhonetic Alphabet (IPA)国际音标. To help familiarize you with the factors involved in describing English consonants and vowels.2.1 The phonic medium of Ian guageP141. What is the difference between “the phonic medium of language "and fhe speech sounds ” The phonic medium of language refers to the

43、 limitedrange of sounds which are meaningful in human communication.语言的声音媒介 The speech sounds refer to the individual sounds within the range of the phonic medium of language.The phonic medium of language " FamilyThe speech sounds " Family members2. Why is speech co nsidered more basic tha

44、n writing? Statistically, speech exists in every language while no written form exists in two thirds of the 5000 languages in the world. Historically, than writing. Functionally,speech came into being much earlierwriting is invented to record speech. Individually, speech is acquired before writing.2

45、.2 Pho netics P151. What is phonetics? Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.(Lon gma nDicti onary of Lan guage Teachi ng and AppliedLin guistics ) Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language , that is, all the sounds that occur in the world ' s languages.2. Discuss the relationshi

46、p between articulato phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phoneticsin terms of the process of human linguistic communication.Chapter 2- Phon etics发音 / 语音学正视表223 Orthographic represe ntati on共鸣的 properties.Broad tran scripti onNarrow tran scripti onlips/l ? ps/l ? psslip/sl ? p/sl ? ppills/p? l

47、z/p? ?zspill/sp ? l/sp ? ?+ diacritics ,da ? ?'kr ? t? k变音符号1) Broad transcription - used in dictionary andsou nds P18-2212)Nasal cavity 鼻腔vowel?3、Classification of consonants P19-20The process of huma n comm uni cati onSpeakerProducerSpeech：=soundsProductHearerReceiverArticulatory phon eticsAco

48、ustic phon eticsAuditory phon etics发音语音学声学语音学听觉语音学92.2.2 Orga ns of speechP15-171. What organs are involved in producing language?共鸣腔Resonating cavitiesNasal cavityOral cavityLipsTeethTeeth ridge Hard palateSoft palateSpeechUvulaorgansTonguePharyngeal cavity 咽腔Vocal cords 声带Lungs2. How are speech so

49、unds produced? Human vocal tract 声道 is just like a (extremelyflexible) m musical instrument! The human vocal tract can be rapidly reshaped in manydifferent ways to take on different resonating产生 The effect of this is to create the variety of different sounds in human speech.3. The diagram of speech

50、organs:1) Lips2) Teeth3) Teeth ridge (alveolar) 齿龈4) Hard palate 硬腭5) Soft palate (velum)软腭6) Uvula'ju:vjul ?小舌7) Tip of tongue舌尖8) Blade of tongue舌面1. 9 Glottal.)Back of tongue 舌背10) Vocal cords声带11) Pharyngeal cavity咽喉示法 of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions宽式和严式转写P17-181. What are

51、main principles of the InternationalPhonetic Alphabet (IPA)? There should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound. The same symbol should beused for that sound in any language in which it appears.2. What is the differe nee betwee n narrowtranscription(严式转写)and broadtranscription(宽式转写)？1) Bro

52、ad transcription is regarded as phonemictranscription(音位转写) .it is widely used intextbooks and dictionaries.Examples: /stop/top/ /plein/2) Narrow transcriptionis regarded as phonetictranscription(语音转写) .it is used to distinguishsmall difference in speech production.Examples: p ?at vs. spat for "

53、;pot" vs. "spot" Narrow tran scripti on = broad tran scripti ontextbook for general purpose, without diacritics ，e.g. clear l , pit 2) Narrow transcription - used by phonetician 语 言学者 for careful study, with diacritics ， e.g . dark l , aspirated p?1. English speech sounds are generall

54、y classifiedinto two large categories:Vowels Consonants2. What is the difference between a consonant and aEnglish consonants may be classified according to1、What are the 5 major factors involved in describingthree dimensions 三维：1) The manner of articulation articulation3) Voicing1) The manner of art

55、iculation2) The place of发音方法: stops/plosives 塞音fricatives擦音 affricates 塞擦音 liquids 流音 n asals 鼻音 glides/semivowels 滑音2) The place of articulation发音部位:bilabial双唇音的 dental齿音的palatal硬腭音的glottal 喉音的labiodental唇齿音的alveolar 齿龈音的velar软颚音的Bilabial 2.Labiodental 3.Dental or interdental4. Alveolar 5. Palatoalveolar 6.Palatalvowels?1) The position of the tongue in the mouth2) The openness of the mouth.3) The shape of the lips.4) The length of the vowel5) The tongue movementExamples: ei t a dip