托福阅读段落组织结构

1、托福阅读-段落内容的组织结构近几年的托福阅读文章难度逐步增大，这种难度主要体现在四方面：词汇，句式， 衔接和篇章。在同学们攻克了词汇和语法关后，就要学会从宏观上来把控文章， 所以今天我们就衔接方面的内容和大家进行探讨。衔接主要是段落内部及段落之间通过何种方式进行语义连接。我们今天通过借鉴官方指南书中的文章来基本了解段落内部的组织结构。1 分类式(classification例子Many people have to com muni cate and work with members of other cultures, and social skills training is now b

2、eing given to some of these who are about t o work abroad. In tercultural com muni cati on is n ecessary for several kinds of p eople.Tourists are probably the largest group, though they stay for the shortest perio ds and need to master only a few simple situations这个段落是典型的分类式写法，把需要进行跨文化交流的人分成几类，接下来分

3、别描述，首当其冲的就是旅游者。官方指南1) Desertification is accomplished primary through the loss of stabilizing natu ral vegetation and the subsequent accelerated erosion of soil by wind and water. (P)In some cases the loose soil is blown completely away, leaving a stony surfac e. In other cases the finer particles m

4、ay be removed, while the san d-sized part icles are accumulated to form mobile hills or ridge of sand. (I)这段内容是一个典型的总分结构，即 point + illustration。观点很明显是说沙漠 化的原因是植被消失，土壤侵蚀。接下来的论证时进一步补充说明植被消失之后， 土壤可能会碰到的状况，分成了两种情况。一种情况松散的土壤完全被吹走，还 有一种情况小颗粒被带走，沙子大小的颗粒聚集成沙山，进而逐步累积形成沙漠 化。2) Expanding populations are subjec

5、ting the land to increasing pressure to pr ovide them with land and fuel. (P)In wet periods the land may be able to respond to these stresses. During the dry periods that are com mon phe nomenon along the desert margins, the pressur e on the land is ofte n far in excess of its dimini shed capacity t

6、o, and desertifi catio n results. (I )这个段落同样讲沙漠化的原因，内部也是总分结构，说的是人变多，土地的压力 增大这个原因。然后分情况强化论点，天气湿润还行；天气干燥，土地就没法处 理这种人口压力，会导致沙漠化。3) Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to the de sertification processes: over cultivation, overgrazing, firewood gathering and over irrigation

7、.文章之后则是分别阐述每一个活动为什么造成沙漠化。其他信号词总结:Categories; classificati on; groups; parts; types; characteristics; eleme nts; kin ds; s orts; ways; classes2比较对比式(Comparison and Contrast)比较式Elepha nts are the biggest land creatures on Earth, and among the smartest and most endearing. In their lives and social dyna

8、mics they resemble humans inmany ways.文章开头谈到resemble,表明之后的文章会把大象同人作比较其他信号词总结： compare, like/alike, resembles, in comparis on likewise, similar, in the same way/manner, parallels, similarly官方指南These Kin etoscope arcades were modeled on phono graph parlors, which had pr ove n successful for Edis on se

9、veral years earlier. In the pho no graph parlors -T he Kinetoscope parlor functioned in a similar way.很明显这里是比较式写法，爱迪生同志所发明的K机器（用于早期的peepshow当中的机器）的建造模型是留声机。对比式Long lumped together by ordinary folks and scholars alike, envy and jealousy are not a single, formless “ supeemotion ” On the contrary, they

10、 are distinet, with different components, and are in fact elicited by completely different situa tions and in completely differe nt sett in gs. （ P）According to a Georgetown University psychologist -envy occurs when a pers on lacks another person ' superior quality, achievement, or possession, a

11、nd desi res it- or wishes that the other person lacked it.Jealousy, by con trast occurs in the con text of a close relati on ship whe n a pers on fears losing an important thing to a rival- in particular, losing a relationsh ip that is important to one' sense of self.Jealousy, by con trast occur

12、s in the con text of a close relati on ship whe n a pers on fears losing an important thing to a rival- in particular, losing a relationsh ip that is important to one' sense of self.这一小段文章的topic是jealousy和envy两词的区别。然后进行对比论证，同 时辅以举例论证。举例十分的形象。以后我们就知道了，当我们和男朋友讨论恋 爱史时，他如果满脸笑容的谈到说他的上一任是刘亦菲时， 你的内心很有可能

13、会同时经历两种情感。你嫉妒（envy）那个前女友，那么纯洁美丽；同时你更嫉妒（jealous）他的一脸笑容，那满足的神情，因为你觉得这可能会破坏你们的恋爱 关系。其他信号词总结：Although, however, on the other hand, as opposed to, in contrast to, rather tha n, but, in stead, un like, con versely, n evertheless, whereas, differe nee, on the con trary, yet, differe nt官方指南1 With the adve n

14、t of project ion in 1895-1896, moti on pictures became the ulti mate form of consumption. Previously, large audienee had viewed spectacles atthe theatre. But the movie differed significantly from these other forms of ent ertainment, which depended on either live performanee or in the case of slide-

15、and-lantern shows the active invoIvement of a master ceremonies who assemble d to final program.本文是在讲投影技术出现之后，电影成了消费形式。之后的论证部分通过对比指 出电影的本质是不需要现场演出或者是大师的积极参与。2 But research findings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed. Some studies suggest that catharsis leads to reduction in tension and a lower

16、ed likelihood of future aggression. Other studies, however, suggest that letting some steam act ually encourages more aggression later on.探讨的是catharsis （泻药）的用途，当然实际是指发泄（vent aggression的效 用。这一小段内部大方向上说是分类结构，不过这个分类的实质是正反对比的两种理论：一些认为发泄会减少紧张，另一些认为会进一步鼓励攻击性行为。3 Before 1815 manufacturing in the United Sta

17、tes had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans -After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers.这一小段是以1815作为分界线，来吧生产形式作一个对比，之前是手工，之后 是机器。3 举例子（Example）托福阅读的文章科普性比较重，所以例子基本以科学研究为主官方指南例子一Cogn itive psycholog

18、ists assert that our behavior is in flue need by our values bythe ways in which we interpret our situations, and by choice. For example, p eople who believe that aggression is necessaryand justified are likely to act a ggressively whereas 这个例子举了两组人来论证我们的价值观会影响我们的行为（攻击性）。大家可以借鉴学术文章举例子的方式，很少用 my neigh

19、bor Jack这样具体的例子，一 般都是泛泛的谈，相对具有说服力。例子二Theorists hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive im pulses are in evitable react ions to the frustrati ons of daily life 这一段用的是弗洛伊德的例子，本质上是科学研究。结合例一例二，大家以后

20、写 学术文章例子的思路就有了，少举太过个人的例子，可以侧重整体概念和名人例子。例子三Sociobiology views mush social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as gen etically determined. Consider Darwin ' theory of evolution. Darwin held that 这一段要表明攻击行为性是基因决定的，之后引入达尔文进化论，本质上还是科学研究。模拟试题1 Several studies how that getting fewer than six hours

21、 of sleep a night can i mpair short-term memory, coordination, reaction time, and judgment. In one stu dy of drivers, researchersreported that sleep deprivation has some of the samehazardous effects as being drunk 这一段是要来说明缺乏睡眠对人体可能会产生的影响，然后通过引入以驾驶员作 为主体的例子来论证。2 However, no measure of early family en

22、 vir onment or early-adult compete neeremained a significant predictor of psychological well being at the end of mid dle age. One study of men revealed that at the age of 65, there were no child hood or early-adulthood characteristics that distinguished between men who had turned out well and those

23、who had not. However, what did predict success a nd well being at the age of 65 was the man shealth and adjustment at midlif e.这篇文章讲生活幸福感。这一段的观点是家庭因素对于中年男人而言就不是那么 重要了。什么才重要？文中指出是你中年时的抉择决定你之后生活是否幸福的。这一观点可以马上运用到 SAT的写作中，Is identity something you are born w ith or something you create for yourself? 或者是

24、雅思作文中对于 nature （先天 因素） 和nurture （后天培育） 哪个更重要的问题的讨论信号词总结：for example, for instanee, to illustrate, specifically, such as 实验论证是学术文章(比如雅思考试)中间段落论证的杀手锏，这里给大家提供 一个简单的对比试验，供大家参考来论证你的观点。An experiment carried out by JapaneseCentral Educational Agency explores st udents' performances in relation to teach

25、ers encouragement, and revealed tha t students who get praise, even overrated, perform better than those who don't get praises. A number of fifty students are divided into two groups. In one g roup, the teacher uses conservative method to teach, students get only conserva tive praise if they per

26、formed good, and will be criticized if they made mistake s.In another group, the students are highly praised if well performed, and will st ill get encouragement if they made mistakes. They overall performanee was tes ted through a sta ndardized exam in ati on at the end of two mon ths. The group o

27、f students who get praise scored 15 percent higher than the other group. Such an experiment further proved that encouragement, even overrated, will have a positive effect on people.4 因果论证(cause and effect)例子一Eve n in the areas that reta in a soil cover, the reduct ion of vegetati on typically result

28、s in the loss of the soil ' ability to absorb substantial quantities of water.The impact of rain drops on the loose soil tends to tran sfer fine clay particles i nto the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows ve ry little water penetration. Water absorption is grea

29、tly reduced; consequently ru noff is in creased, result ing in accelerated erosi on rates. The gradual drying of t he soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further l oss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is establis hed.这是一个非常漂亮的因果链论证观

30、点的段落，值得背诵，它的逻辑关系如下P:即使在有土壤覆盖的地方，植被减少也会导致土壤吸水能力下降为什么呢?雨水打在松散的土壤上-移走密封小粘土颗粒（粘土可以大量吸水）-产生一个 不能让水进入的表面-结果是流出的水变多-进一步导致土壤被水侵蚀；同时土 地吸水能力不足-土地干旱-进一步导致植被减少-恶性循环。例子二In some regi ons, the in crease in desert areas is occurri ng largely as the result of a trend toward drier climatic conditions.Con ti nued grad

31、ual global warm ing has produced a n in crease in aridity for som e areas over the past few thousand years. The process may be accelerated in s ubsequent decades if global warming resulting from air pollution seriously incre ases.这一段还是介绍沙漠化的原因，这里讲的原因是天气干旱。如何论证。空气污染导致-全球变暖-produce (隐形结果词)aridity (dry

32、ness)-沙漠区域增加其他信号词总结：表原因的词Because, for this reason, since, cause, on account of, why, due to表结果的词语As a result, in effect, therefore, con seque ntly, results in, thus, hen ce, the outco me is总结以上是托福阅读文章主要的一些段落组织方式。把握好这个基本框架，可以帮助 各位更快的确定这一段的主要内容，更为重要的是把握以后自己写作的段落论证 方式。Our species 'valved on the mov

33、e- Recent research on the 圧疏幅 of ex灯He) and tin consequences of sedentary living has shown that physical activity is crucial to tin proper protessing of foods that wv cat In fact, most of the chronic and often lih threatening ailmtnb that besiege Americans in cpidcnnic proportions could bt* km pered

34、 by regular exercise. Among them arc heart disease, diabetes, high bhod prcs,surcf ardirids, and osteoporosis. But let's face it： most people are not motiwed m exert ise by what it may do for them 20 years down tlie pike. Wmt 列 people 险 w mu day w what rxercise 伽for me right now, especially tmt it 冰伽w mr 协 njoy ealii without gaining. L 汕WRwHh mifljfifls Qfh刿亡 discovEttd thut txuxi丈店 血key lo p 亡 rmantmt /nd 卩孔inkss weighs conlioLanc Drodv, Exercise: A New Dieiai' ReqiumnenioooIbday American Gothic pervades our popular culture. Caricatures