LexicologySenserelations语义关系

1、Sense relations 语义关系1、 Sense relations are the relations held between words within the vocabulary.2、 Five types synonymy 同义关系 antonymy反义关系 hyponymy下义关系 homonymy同形同音异义关系polysemy一词多义3、Synonymy3、1 Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same

2、 in meaning.张维友 picture, photo, snapshot Synonymy is a term used in semantics to refer to a major type of sense relation between lexical items: lexical items which have the same meaning but differ in morphemic structure, phonological form and usage are synonyms, and the relationship between them is

3、one of synonymy.3.2 types of synonymy total / absolute / perfect synonyms: (完全同义词) are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning include. partial synonyms （部分同义词）/relative 相对 refer to items which are close enough in their meaning to

4、 allow a choice to be made between them in some contexts without affecting the meaning of the sentence as a whole. partial synonyms （部分同义词） examples: able, capable, nearly, almost announce, declare4Antonymy反义关系4.1 Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. 4.2 Types of antonymsM

5、orphologically, antonyms can be divided into root antonyms(词根反义词)and derivative antonyms（派生反义词）. P340 词根反义词： longshort, updown, whiteblack 派生反义词: code-decode, appeardisappear, usefuluseless, Types of antonymsSemantically, antonyms can be divided into three types: Complementary Contrary Converses (1)

6、 Complementaries 互补反义词 Complementaries are forms of antonyms which truly represent oppositeness of meaning. binary antonyms 二元反义词 nongradableExamples in the textbook: Adj.: dead alive, present absent, male female, true false, Noun: boy girl, man woman V. pass-fail; hit-missFeatures of complementarie

7、s They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other or vice versa. Another distinctive feature of this category is that such antonyms are nongradable. (2) Contraries 相对反义词 gradable antonyms Contra

8、ries are best envisaged in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes. old, middle-aged, younghot, _, cold beautiful, _, ugly Such words also show the feature of gradability, that is, superlative degree or comparative degree, even some adverbs can be added into the two poles to indicate

9、the words are gradable. eg. Younger, youngest, very young, relatively youngAntonyms of this kind are characteristic of semantic polarity. These antonyms form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belonging neither to one pole nor to the other. 这种反义词的特点是语义二极性

10、。这些反义词形成了处于两极之间的一支等值尺，并可以提供不属于两端的中间地带。(3) Converses 关系反义词Ø Converses consist of relational opposites such as parentchild, husbandwife, predecessorsuccessor, employeremployee. The pairs of words indicate such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the

11、 other.a. Nouns: husband - wife; student-teacher; doctor-patient; b. Verbs: buy-sell; teach-learn; give-take; rent - let; save-waste; win-losec. Prepositions: above-below; in front of-behind; Note 天地heaven and earth 夫妻man and wife 因果cause and effect 来去come and go 远近far and near 黑白black and white 厚薄t

12、hick and thinNote fire and water heat and cold eat and drink right and left rich and poor old and new heavy and light sooner or later The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用 (1) Antonym have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the meanings of a given word. 反义词有各种实际用途，在解释词

13、义方面早就被证明很有用处、很有价值。 fresh bread, fresh air, fresh flowers, fresh look stale bread, stuffy air, faded flowers, tired look The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用(2)Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought, often for the sake of contrast. 反义词能使我们简洁地表达一特定思想的反面，常

14、常是为了形成对比。 The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用(3) Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together. 反义词常用来构成对偶句，以便将对立的思想放在一起取得强调的效果 Art is long, life is short. Easy come， easy go. More hate, less speed. United we stand, divided we fall. Hope for the best and

15、 prepare for the worst. The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用(4) Many great writers are fond of using antonyms to serve their stylistic purpose. 许多大作家喜欢利用反义词以达到其风格上的目标。It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it wa

16、s the age of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the epoch of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despairs, we have everything in before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct to other ways - A Tale of Two Stories

17、Homonymy同形同音异义关系 Homonyms? Origin of homonyms Types of homonyms Homonymy同形同音异义关系 Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 同形同音异义词是意义不同、而发音与拼写皆相同或只有拼写或只有发音相同的词。Origins of homonyms见课本Ø Spli

18、t of polysemy 多义词的词义分化 Quean/queen, flour-古法语flor花，拉丁语flos“麦子的最精细部分”、flowerØ Converging sound development 音变的汇合/外来词的介入 I/eye, bear/bear, race/race Ø Shortening 词语缩略的结果Ø Popular/pop, rock and roll/rockØ Bernard Shaw: ghotiTypes of homonymsØ Perfect/absolute homonyms完全同形同音异义词&

19、#216; Homophones同音异义词Ø Homographs同形异义词 (1)Perfect homonyms Perfect homonyms also known as absolute homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling bank, bear, date bank n the edge of the river, lake, etc bank n. an establishment for money business bear n a large heavy animal bear v to p

20、ut up with date n a kind of fruit date n a boy or girl friend(2)Homographs同形异义词 tear, sow. minute, lead, bow, wind 重音转换：produce, refuse, desert, object(3)Homophones同音异义词 sew/sow, dear/deer, meet/meat/mete边界，awe/oar/or/ore, cent/scent/sent, right/write/rite/wright， pair/pear/pare, to/two/too, tale/ta

21、ilRhetoric features of homonymsHomonyms are often employed to create puns for desired effect of humor or irony for stylistic purposes.Example 1:- Youre not eating your fish, the waitress said to him. anything wrong with it?-long time no sea, the man replied. Polysemy 一词多义关系 Polysemy Two approaches t

22、o polysemy processes of development Polysemy 一词多义关系 Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. 它是指一个单独的词同时有两个或更多的意义。 The bulk of English words are polysemic; one meaning words are rare and are mainly scientific terms such as hydrogen, molecule, and so on.1. Two appr

23、oaches to polysemyJ Diachronic approach历时研究方法 It is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word.一词多义是同一个词的语义结构历史发展的结果。The first meaning is the primary meaning原始意义. Later meanings are called derivative meanings派生意义.P89 J Synchronic approach共时研究方法

24、Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a historical period of time. 从共时的角度看，在同一个历史时期，同一个词可以拥有许多不同的意义。The basic meaning of a word is called the central meaning 中心意义. The derivative meanings are secondary in comparison.2. processes of development

25、1) Radiation辐射型 2) Concatenation连锁型 3) the combination of the two 1) Radiation辐射型Semantically, radiation is the process which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. 从语义上讲，辐射型是这样一种过程，在此过程中，本义（也称中心意义）处在中心位置，次要意义从此处象光线一

26、样朝各个方向辐射。1) Radiation辐射型Head P90（见课本）All the meanings are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning.这些次要词义之间相互独立，但均可追溯到中心义。2) Concatenation连锁型 Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successiv

27、e shifts until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning. 连锁型是一种语义过程，在此过程中，一个词的意义象链条一样，通过连续的改变，逐渐从本义移开，直至最后发展出来的意义和本义没有了任何关系。 例1 ：board ：木板餐桌会议桌董事会 例2 ：candidate ：穿白袍的人身着白袍申请职位的人候选人 3) radiation + concatenation BE A C F G Dradiation + concatenation 综合

28、性： 词义的变化是很复杂的，并不都按单一的方式进行。在通常的情况下，词义的演变是两种方式交叉结合进行的。由只有一个原始意义的单义词通过多种词义演变过程发展为多义词的过程叫做词义的“繁衍”（proliferation）example face: 在古英语里的意思是“脸”。在放射型的演变过程中，通过词义的扩大获得了 “人的外表、外观、态度”等意思；通过词义的缩小获得了“表情”的意思；通过隐喻使词义转变为“尊严”。 在连锁型的演变过程中，由“人的外表”转移为“任何东西的外表、表面”。 多义词的词义就是这样一步步地繁衍出来的。radiation + concatenation Hyponymy Hyp

29、onymy From the above diagram, we can see the word food is a general term, linguistically called a superordinate term, i.e., it includes all the other terms listed underneath it. Meat, vegetable, and fruit are specific terms and they are all hyponyms / subordinate terms of food. The relationship betw

30、een specific words and general words are called hyponymy.Hyponymy The sense relation of hyponymy is very helpful in both receptive and productive processing of language. In reading comprehension, cohesion by hyponymy is an important key.e.g. There was a fine rocking-chair that his father used to sit

31、 in, a desk where he wrote letters, a nest of small tables and dark, imposing bookcase, now all this furniture was to be sold, and with it his own pastnotes Hand是由palm，finger，knuckle三部分组成。他们之间是整体与部分的关系而非上下义关系。 又如 plant由 root， stem, leaf, flower, bud, shoot 组成。 LexicologyChanges in word meaning Cause

32、s of change Mechanism/process of change Types of changeTypes of semantic change extension（词义的扩大）/generalization (词义的一般化) narrowing （词义的缩小）/ specialization （词义的特殊化）/ elevation (词义的升格) degeneration / degradation(词义的降格) transference of meaning (词义的转移)1. generalization / extension Extension of meaning i

33、s the name given to the widening of meaning, which some words undergo. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and less definite concept. Examples lady: “the female host in a house” “a female aristocrat”

34、 “women who are educated” “a polite way to refer to any kind of woman” “the synonym to woman”女主人 贵族太太 有教养的女主人 任何女人 saleslady, cleaning lady, ladies room, a lady novelist, lady traffic wardens, lady guests1. generalization / extension From specific to general 从特指到类指 From concrete to abstract从具体到抽象Fro

35、m technical terms to general words从术语到一般词汇From proper nouns to common nouns从专有名词到普通名词ExamplesFrom specific to general 从特指到类指 ExamplesFrom technical terms to general words从术语到一般词汇汉语中的例子 又如：“得更求好女”（西门豹治邺） “好”， 原来专指女子相貌好看，不涉及品德，现代汉语中“好”可泛指一切美好的性质，对人、事、物都可以修饰限制。 2. specialization / narrowing narrowing i

36、s a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.2. specialization / narrowing From general to specific 从类指到特指 From abstract to concrete从抽象到具体From general words to technical terms 从一般词汇到术语From common nouns to proper nouns 从普通名词到专有名词Examples:from general to specifi

37、c从泛指到特指 meat (各种食物, eg. sweetmeat甜食, greenmeat蔬菜, to be meat and drink to somebody flesh meat肉食)From abstract to concrete从抽象到具体 room （空间，地方 具体的有限空间，房间） eg. There is still room for improvement. Give me some room.More examples:从普通名词到专有名词 cape（海角）-the Cape （the Cape of Good Hope） me some room. 从一般词语到术语

38、 memory记忆-存储器3. elevation elevation refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance.More examples中性 褒义 queen 女人 女王 marshal 喂马的人 最高指挥官 constable 马夫 警察，警官 lord loaf giver 贵族 ambassador 信使 大使More examples贬义 褒义 shrewd 凶狠的，邪恶的 精明的，机灵的 smart 凶恶的 eg. smart blow, s

39、mart frost 机灵的，巧妙地， 漂亮的4. degeneration / degradation degradation is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process by which words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words and finally they come to be used in a derogatory sense.Examples silly happy, fortunate, holy innocent,

40、 harmless foolishSilly 幸福的神圣的- 天真地，无害的- 愚蠢的 sad satisfied, contended calm serious gloomy sorrowful Sad 满足的 镇静的- 严肃的 忧郁的 悲伤的 汉语中的例子 “先帝不以臣卑鄙”（诸葛亮出师表） “卑”是指地位低下，“鄙”是指见识浅陋，并没有贬义；现在的“卑鄙”则指品质恶劣，变为贬义词。 “谤讥于市朝”（战国策· 齐策一） “谤”古义为议论、批评他人过失，是中性词，现在是“恶意中伤”的意思，是贬义词。 词义的转移 不论词义范围的变化还是词义褒贬的变化，词所指事物的类别都没有发生变化。

41、但是，词从“字面意义”转移到“比喻意义”，所指事物类别完全不同了，词义发生了转移。transference of meaning transference of meaning refers to the process of meaning change in which the literal meaning（字面意义） of a word is transferred to the figurative meaning（比喻意义）. Three major ways:1. Metaphor2. Metonymy3. SynecdocheMetaphor Metaphor is a fig

42、ure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another.Examples human bodies:the head: the head of a cane the head of an arrow the head of a bedthe face: the face of a cliff the face of a watch the face of a building

43、 the face of the earthExamplesthe mouth: the mouth of a river the mouth of a pocket the mouth of a bottle the mouth of a tunnelthe lip: the lip of a bowl the lip of a craterthe tongue: the tongue of a shoe the tongue of firethe eyethe noseExamples animals:hare lipsthe crest of a hillwing chair plant

44、s:the root of a hairthe stem of a worda family treeExamples other objects:the bridge of the nosethe roof of the mouththe arch of the foot eye-ballknee-capshoulder bladeExamples use animals to refer to human beings:foxwolfassbearYou lucky dog!bee汉语里的例子 地头蛇 雌老虎 走狗 狐群狗党 狐朋狗友 鸡冠花 （cockscomb），吊钟花 （bluebe

45、ll）Metonymy （借代） Metonymy is the device in which we name something by one of its attributes means to using one entity to refer to another that is related to iteg. The kettle is boiling. He took to the bottle.transferred epithet 移就 a sorry state of affairs 可悲的事态 a doubtful question 难料的问题 the whipped

46、soul 被鞭笞的灵魂synaesthesia 通感 sharp pepper a sharp smell sharp words sharp eyes sharp wind 味觉： 辛辣的辣椒 嗅觉：刺鼻的气味 听觉：刺耳的话语 视觉：锐利的眼光 触觉：刺骨的寒风Synecdoche Synecdoche means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing or the reverse of any of theseExamples Young people should have

47、 more respect for grey hairs. He saw some new faces in the classroom. to earn ones bread to count heads Many hands provide great strength. He is a poor creature.Causes of change1. Linguistic factors 语言因素(1) borrowing(2) shortening (3) analogy 2. Extra-linguistic factors 非语言因素(1)historical reason (2)

48、class reason(3)psychological reason (4) social value reasonLinguistic factors: borrowingThe change of meaning may be caused by internal factor within the language system.1. borrowingeg. deer (Formerly it meant “animal”, and later “animal” from Latin and “beast” from French found their way into Engli

49、sh. In the interests of economy “deer” was specialized to mean one particular species of “animal” rather than “animal” in general. ) More examples “pig, cow, sheep” originally referred to both the animal and their meat. But with the coming of “pork, beef, mutton”, they only refer to the animals now.

50、 rear (Anglo-Saxon), raise (Scandinavian) clean (Anglo-Saxon), pure (French) hearty, cordial (Latin), cardiac心脏的 (Greek)Linguistic factors: shortening2. shortening For economy, some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original, usually an adjective, is left to retain the meaning of the

51、 whole. For example, English = good morning = God give you a good morning More examples a private = a private soldier a general = a general officer an editorial = an editorial article a saloon = a saloon car gas = coal gasLinguistic factors: analogy3. analogy when the meaning of the original word changes, it will bring the change of the meaning of derived words. For