拷给学生语言学课件

1、Chapter 2 phonologyPhonetic transcription (The) IPA 国际音标国际音标 IPA is the abbreviated form of the International Phonetic Association（国际语（国际语音学协会）音学协会） or the International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）（国际音标）. International Phonetic Association is an organization founded in 1886 by a group of European phonet

2、icians to promote the study of phonetics. In 1888, it published the first version of International Phonetic Alphabet, which, in modified and expanded form, is today the most widely used system for transcribing the sounds of a language. Bilabial Labio-dentalDental AlveolarPalatalVelarglottalStopsVLpt

3、kVD bdgFricativesVLf?shVDvzaffricatesVLtVDd NasalsVD mnLiquidsVDl. rglidesVD wjv1. voiced palatal affricate v2. voiceless labiodental fricativev3. voiced alveolar stopv/g p b d/ v/f p m ? v b /v/z v s d g /v/t z d n s /v/ m n b /v/ g k b d p v t /p/ voiceless/m/ nasal /s/ voiceless/n/ nasal /v/ fric

4、ative/b/ oral/d/d/f/Front Central Back close Semi-close Semi-open openi: i e : u:u: Phone, phoneme and allophone（音素、音位、音位变体）（音素、音位、音位变体） P371 Phone（音素）（音素） Phone is a term used to refer to the smallest perceptible discrete（不连续的）（不连续的） segment of sound in a stream of speech. Phones do not necessarily

5、 distinguish words from each other. For example, while the phones i: and i do as in bi:t and bit, ph and p= obviously dont as in sphit and sp=it. Conventionally, phones are placed within square brackets, such as p t l , etc. 2. Phoneme (音位音位) p37 A phoneme is a phonological unit, which is the minima

6、l unit in the sound system of a language, according to traditional phonological theories; it is a unit that is of distinctive value, i.e. it can distinguish words. Substituting one phoneme for another results in a change of meaning. A phoneme is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but

7、rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme /p/ is represented differently in phit and sp=it. The notion of the phoneme allowed linguists to group together sets of phonetically similar phones as variants or members of the same under

8、lying unit. (To follow the convention, square brackets are used to indicate phones, and obliques phonemes. such as / t /, / p /, / l /.)Phone, phoneme and allophone 3. Allophones （音位变体（音位变体) The phones that can represent a phoneme in certain phonetic context are called its allophones. When we have a

9、 set of phones, all of which are variants of one phoneme, we refer to them as the allophones of that phoneme. So the phones ph and p= are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/. The phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic vari

10、ation.Phones, phonemes and allophones phoneme (abstract unit) meaning distinguishing allophones (concrete unit, realization of the phoneme / p /) variants to the same basic entity Phones (concrete unit)not necessarily Meaning-distinguishing / p / Peak, tip ph Spit, speak p= / l / Leap l Peel l Minim

11、al pair, phonemic contrast, and complementary distribution1 Minimal pair(最小对立体最小对立体) p38When two different words are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to have formed a minimal pair, like pill-bill, pill-till, and

12、 kill-bill. All the words that are identical in form except for one sound segment occurring in the same place in the strings together constitute a minimal set（最小（最小对立集合）对立集合）. The minimal pairs test is one of the early discovery procedures used in phonology to identify phonemes, sound units that are

13、 of distinctive value.2 Phonemic contrast if two sounds distinguish words, they are said to form a phonemic contrast(音位对音位对立）立）, like /p/ and /b/, which are in contrastive distribution. Minimal pair, phonemic contrast, and complementary distributionMinimal pair, phonemic contrast, and complementary

14、distribution3. Complementary distribution The allophones of a phoneme do not distinguish meaning or words, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. So they are said to be in complementary distribution.（互补分布）（互补分布）Phonemic contrast, minimal pairs

15、and complementary distribution / p / and / b / in pill and bill, rope and robe p= in pit and ph in spitpill and bill pill and bill, bill and kill, kill and till, till and dill, dill and gill Distinctive features : p39-40A distinctive feature is a phonetic property which can distinguish one phoneme f

16、rom another or one group of phonemes from another group. For example, voicing is a distinctive feature for English obstruents (阻塞音阻塞音), including stops, fricatives and affricates.(Look at p40)Some rules in phonology vSequential rulesvAssimilation rulesvDeletion rule Sequential rules （序列规则） The phono

17、logical system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules. k b l i There are many sequential rules in English. (1) if a word begins with l or r , then the next sou

18、nd must be a vowel. (2) if three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: The first phoneme must be / s / The second phoneme must be / p /, / t / or / k / The third phoneme must be / l /, / r / ,/j / or / w / e.g. spring, s

19、trict, square, splendid, scream Assimilation rules （同化规则）vA process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. e.g. Bean, green, team, scream, tank, ninth, There are:Progressive assimilation (顺同化顺同化) refers to the process in which a preceding sound influences

20、 a following sound .Regressive assimilation (逆同化逆同化)refers to the process where a following sound influences a preceding sound.Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following: pan cake; sun glasses; you can keep them; he can go now vDevoicing: a process by which

21、voiced sounds become voiceless. 使浊音变清音e.g. Five past love to bad boy has to as can be shown lose fivevPrinciple of least effort （省力原则） impossible (not inpossible), incorrect (not imcorrect), irregular (not imregular or inregular), illegal (not imlegal, inlegal, or unlegal etc.) 我告诉你、不要、这样子deletion r

22、ule 省略规则vA sound may be deleted although it is orthographically represented.vEg.vSign design paradigm vSignature, designation, paradigmatic vRule: delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.Suprasegmental features: syllable, stress, tone, intonation The phonemic features that occur abo

23、ve the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental features include stress, pitch, tone and intonation. Syllables vBeautiful Language CongratulationvA syllable must

24、contain a vowel sound. The most common type of syllable in language also has a consonant before the vowel, often represented as CV. vTechnically, the basic elements of the syllable are the onset （节首）（节首）(one or more consonants) and the rime （韵脚）（韵脚）. The rime consists of the vowel, which is treated

25、as the nucleus (or peak)（韵核、韵峰）（韵核、韵峰）, plus any following consonant(s), treated as the coda（韵尾）（韵尾）. Syllable structure syllable onset rime nucleus (peak) coda consonant(s) vowel consonant(s)音节vOpen syllable close syllablev开音节开音节：即分为绝对开音节和相对开音节。v绝对开音节：以发音的元音字母或者元音结尾的音节 ， 如,be, no, he.一般是辅音字母+元音字母。b

26、yv相对开音节：辅音字母（r 除外） +元音字母 +辅 音字母+不发音的e结尾。 例：make，like 。 发音的元音字母发本音。v闭音节闭音节：辅音字母+元音字母+辅音字母结尾。vHat cup am up v该音节若重读，即重读闭音节。v如Begin, sit, play, open, listen, wait, study, forbid, prohibit, travel quarrel Stress 重音 1. 词的重音 word stress 一个单词至少有一个音节。需要重点突出或强调,读的响亮的的音节即为重读音节，也即重音。（单音节一般都要重读，）不响亮的音节就是非重读音节或弱

27、读音节。 go, come, child, want, try, like, 一般来说，若单词只有1至3个音节，则在该单词首字母处重读；若单词有4个或4个以上的音节，则在倒数第三个音节处重读。如： university,ju:niv:siti, difficultdifiklt , Studystdi, good(免写重音符号)gud。Possibility psychology photograph photographer modernization 派生词的重音多数仍为词根原来的重音。如：cover, discover. 一般来说，某些单词既可以作名词又可以做动词时，动词重音在第二个音节

28、，而名词重音在第一个音节。 Record, survey, abstract , desert, present, Blackboard, blackbird, greenhouse, hotdogSentence stress 句子重音在不特殊强调或作对比的情况下，短语或句子的重音往往落在最后一个出现的实词上。在句子中比较重要的词都要重读。这些词大都是实词，而单音节的虚词一般不重读。重读的词汇主要有：重读的词汇主要有：）名词，如kitchen ,peter, book, doctor）大部分的实义动词，如visit, construct, break, open）形容词，如interesti

29、ng ,pretty, wonderful,fantastic,）副词，如often, carefully, easily, hard5）数词，如one, a, two6）代词（但人称代词除外。包括疑问代词，指示代词，名词性物主代词7） 感叹词不重读强调的词主要包括：不重读强调的词主要包括：1） 限定词，如the, a ,some, a few （包括冠词在内）2） 助词，如dont, am, can, were3） 介词，如before, next to, opposite4） 连词，如but, while, as5） 人称代词，如they, she, us, themselves, our

30、selves6） be 动词，助动词，情态动词，形容词性物主代词例如：So the two young brother work hard at that time.所以那两兄弟在那时很努力地工作。Chapter 3 morphologyvWord is vA grammatical unit: sentenceclausephrasewordmorphemevProblem: blackboardIdentification of wordsvStability: stable linguistic units.vchairman, but not *manchairvRelative un

31、interruptibility: though we recognize three components in the word disappointment, we cannot pause and add another component in between the three parts, as in *disinterestappointment.vBut we can add another word between words: Paul, (John) and Mary .vA minimum free form: the smallest unit that can c

32、onstitute a complete utterance by itself, egv-Is Jane coming tonight?v-Possibly.vHi. Wonderful. vDarlingAll the nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and injections are the content words/lexical words/open class words; while the other categories including conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns,

33、and articles, (auxiliary verb, determiners,) are functional or grammatical words or close class words.Chapter 3 MorphologyContent words/open class words and functional/close class words Variable and Invariable wordsChapter 3 Morphology Variable words 可变词可变词are the words containing inflective endings

34、, where one could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; and part of the word remains relatively constant, thus each ordered series constitutes a paradigm.e.g. follow; follows, following, and followed; so follow is a variable word. Invariable words 不变词dont have inflec

35、tive endings, e.g. since, before, although, hello, and please etc.vRoot词根词根vBase form of a word that cannot be analyzed into smaller parts. ve.g. friend in unfriendliness.vA word may contain more than one root, in which case it is a compound word. ve.g. bookshop, blackbirdvRoots may be vfree: those

36、that can stand by themselves, eg black+board; nation+-al; orvbound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.vStem词干vformed when a root is combined with an affix (that other affixes can continue to be attached to)任何一个可以加上词缀的单位都可以叫做词干v词干可以是一个或多个词素。v词根只能是一个词素。vWo

37、rksvWorkersvworkshopsva simple stem consisting of only one morpheme, in this case the root and the stem are the same, e.g. in works, work is both the stem and the root; va root plus a derivational affix, e.g. in workers, work is the root, worker is the stem; vtwo or more roots, e.g. in workshops, bo

38、th work and shop are roots, workshop is the stem.词干可以是一个或多个词素。词干可以是一个或多个词素。 词根只能是一个词素词根只能是一个词素Chapter 4 syntaxTree structure 树形图 Specifier Head ComplementXP (Specifier) X (Complement)Variable(变量)What is XP rule? lXP can be different phrases, because X ( Variable变量) stands for the head N,V,A or P NP

39、(Det) N (PP) VP (Qual) V (NP) AP (Deg) A (PP) PP (Deg) P (NP) XP (Specifier) X (Complement) (Note: “ ” means “consist of”; ( ) means “can be omitted”; “” means other complement options are available)Word-level categories lMajor lexical categories主要词汇范畴:l N, V, A, P lMinor lexical categories次要词汇范畴:l

40、determiner(Det.): the, a, both, this, thosel degree word(Deg.): quite, very, morel qualifier (qual.): often, always, almostl auxiliary (aux): must, should, does, havel conjunction (con.): and, but, or NP (Det) + N +(PP) e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls VP (Qual) + V + (NP) e.g.

41、 always play games, finish assignments AP (Deg) + A + (PP) very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP) on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the stationIC AnalysisIC Analysise.g. He is from France He is from France is from France from FranceIC Analysis Practice:

42、 Please analyze the following three sentences by means of IC Analysis: 1. Little Tom runs very fast. 2. These apples are very sweet. 3. His brother stayed at home.IC Analysis1. Little Tom runs very fast 2. These apples are very sweet Little Tom runs very fast These apples are very sweetLittle Tom ru

43、ns very fast These apples are very sweet very fast very sweet 3. His brother stayed at home His brother stayed at home His brother stayed at home at homeLabeled IC Analysis 1. Little Tom runs very fast /S Little Tom /NP runs very fast / VPLittle /Adj Tom /N runs / V very fast /ADVP very /Adv fast /A

44、dv 2. These apples are very sweet /S These apples /NP are very sweet / VPThese /Det apples /N are / V very sweet /AP very /Adv sweet /AdjLabeled IC Analysis 3. His brother stayed at home /S His brother /NP stayed at home / VP His /Det brother /N stayed / V at home /PP at /P home /N But this method i

45、s too redundant and troublesome, so people modified it and use phrase markers.ambiguous sentences (a) The shooting of the hunters was terrible. (b) Flying planes can be dangerous. (c) Time flies. (d) John loves Richard more than Martha. (e) The police were ordered to stop drinking about midnight. (f

46、) The chicken is too hot to eat.This model was later developed into what is usually called the standard theory of transformational grammar. Chomsky also put forward the idea of two levels of syntactic structure: (1) deep structure (2) surface structureDeep structure & surface structure Deep stru

47、cture & surface structure Consider the following pair of sentences: John is easy to please. John is eager to please.Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures. Deep structure & surface structureDeep structure &

48、surface structureConsider one more sentence: Flying planes can be dangerous.It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous.Deep and surface structures Every sentence has two levels of structure. One ,which is obvious on the s

49、urface , is called surface structure, and the other, which contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of thesentence, is called deep structure. Chomsky The love of God God loves someone Someone loves God Chapter 5 semantics5.3 Word meaningSense and refer

50、enceSense (词的系统意义/涵义) is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.（abstract) e.g. dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.(Collins dictionary of the English language)Reference (词的指称意义) means what a linguistic form refers to in the rea

51、l physical world. (concrete) e.g. The dog is barking.Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. Words that have a sense but no reference: empty names (麒麟, 龙, unicorn, 林黛玉) , but, and Words that have the same reference but different senses: 晨星/暮星 （金星 Venus）, 邓小平/中国改革开放的总设计师 Words tha

52、t have same senses but different references: the same word used in different context: 最可爱的人、大款 denotation and connotation. Denotation 外延is the constant, abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation. (Denotation of a linguistic expression is its dictiona

53、ry meaning.) e.g. Dog: 4-legged flesh-eating animal of many breeds akin to wolf. Connotation 内涵refers to the emotive or affective component of a linguistic expression, which is superimposed upon its basic meaning. Dog: loyal, bite people, human-like, Leech (1974) recognizes 7 types of meaning in his

54、 book Semantics.1 Conceptual meaning(概念意义)Logical, cognitive, or denotative content2 Connotative meaning(内涵意义)What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.3 Social meaning(社会意义)What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.4 Affective meaning(情感意义)What is communicated

55、 of the feeling and attitudes of the speaker/writer.5 Reflected meaning(反映意义)What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.6 Collocative meaning(搭配意义)What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.7 Them

56、atic meaning(主题意义)What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.1) Conceptual meaning概念意义=denotative meaning(外延）/cognitive meaningThe core of theoryThe relationship between words and the things they refer towomen: +HUMAN +FEMALE +ADULTbull, cow, cal

57、fbull=+BOVINE+MALE+ADULTcow=+BOVINE+FEMALE+ADULTcalf=+BOVINE-ADULT2) Connotative meaning 内涵意义内涵意义 The communicative value that a word or a combination of words has , over and above its conceptual content. grin, beam, smile, and smirk. slender, slim, thin, and skinny Woman: housewife, gentle, cry, em

58、otional fragile, weak, dependent hesitant Pig: fat, lazy, dirty, greedy, docile Examples in textbook (p 113)3) Social meaning社会意义社会意义Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language useStylistic Meaninghorse (common) steed (formal/poetic) nag (slang) gee (colloquial/child language) 称谓：妻子，内人，爱人，夫人，媳妇，老婆，堂客，屋里的，孩子他 妈，老伴儿，老婆子 See in textb