语言学第二单元参考答案

1、Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of studyarticulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual/auditory phonetics.articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech soun

2、ds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.speech organs: those parts of the huma

3、n body involved in the production of speech, also known as vocal organs.voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be voiced. When the vocal folds are apart and the air

4、 can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be voiceless.International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discove

5、ries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.vo

6、wel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.manner of articulation: ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished(a) the articulators may close off the oral tra

7、ct for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.Cardinal Vowels: a set o

8、f vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. j and w.vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality, includi

9、ng diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived.coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If t

10、he affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticution.phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast    

11、60;  between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary d

12、istribution and bear phonetic similarity.assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with coarticulation. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called regressive assimilation; the co

13、nverse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation.Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.distinctive features: a

14、 means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleu

15、s or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which sta

16、tes that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more prominent, it is a stressed syllable in contrast to a less promi

17、nent, unstressed onation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.2.1) v

18、oiced dental fricative 2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal 4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive 6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel3.1)

19、 f2) 3) j4) h5) t6) e7) 8) 9) 10) u4.1) On a clear day you can see for miles.2) Some people think that first impressions count for a lot.5. 1)Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.（其他见课本）5. 2)This

20、is because gh is pronounced as f in enough, o as in women, and ti as in nation.5. 3)（见，）  5. 4) Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. （接下来见）5. 5) Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to

21、 the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as m) precedes an oral vowel (such as æ in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel æ will begin with a somewhat nasal q

22、uality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel æ, the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised

23、position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of æ has begun. Similarly, when æ is followed by m, as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of æ so that it is ready for the following nasal.When such simultaneous or overlapping articul

24、ations are involved, we call the process coarticulation. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map.Assimila

25、tion is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding so

26、und is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example,ex. 1a. cap kæp           can kænb. tap tæp  

27、0;         tan tænex. 2a. tent tnt           tenth tnb. ninety nanti    ninth nanex. 2a. since sns         sink skb. mince sns   &

28、#160;   mink mk In both exx. 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is “nasalized” because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2, the nasal /n/ is “dentalized” before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal /

29、n/ becomes the velar nasal before the velar stop k. In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundar

30、ies, as shown by the following:ex. 4a. pancakeb. he can go nowStudies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound:ex. 5a. five past              favpst

31、        >  fafpstb. has to                  hæzt            >  hæstc. as can be shown  zknbn 

32、>  sknbnd. edge to edge       t         >  tThe first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, con

33、nected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels.5. 6) The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with t

34、he rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is l and when following a vowel it is . However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as l, not ?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller i

35、s disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the /l/ must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme /l/ is realized as it should be before the

36、 vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word is formed. In word-formation it is tell + -er while in syllable struct

37、ure it is te+l.6. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.1) All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless (-voice) consonants and all the sounds that end t

38、he words in column B are voiced (+voice) consonants.2) All the words in column C are open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) The two sounds are in complementary distribution because appears only before voiceless consonants and a occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) (a) lf

39、        (b) lives lavz5) (a) tral       (b) bk        (c) ls          (d) fla          (e) man6) /a/ à

40、60; / _voice                   a  in other places7.As far as orthography is concerned, there are four variants: in-, im-, ir-, and il-, but closer scrutiny shows that in- may be pronounced as before velar consonants, so

41、there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation:(1) n: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable n or : incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent  m: impenetrable, impossible, immobile  l: illiterate, illegal, illogical

42、0; r: irresponsible, irresistible, irregularIt is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find m before labial consonants like m

43、or p, l before the lateral l, r before r. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant k, it is in rapid speech and n in careful speech. In all other cases n is always the case. Assuming an underlying form /n/, the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this (in the simplest notation):(2) /n/ n, / _velarm / _labiall