语言学知识点+整理

1、第 一 单 元 Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage, but languages in general.The scope of linguistics语言学研究的范畴Phonetics 语音学 Phonology音系学 Morphology形态学 Syntax句法学 Semantics语义学 Pragmatics语用学 Sociolinguistics社会语言学 Psycholin

2、guistics心理语言学 Applied linguistics应用语言学Phonetics语 音 学 ： thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication led to the establishment of a branch of linguisticscalled phoneticsPhonology音系学 :aslinguistsbecameinterestedinhowsoundsput together and used to convey meaning in communication ,theydevelopedanotherbr

3、anchofstudyrelatedtosoundscalledphonology.Morphology形态学 :the studyof the way in which these symbolsare arranged form words has constituted the branch of study calledmorphology.Syntax句法学 :the combination of these words to form permissiblesentences in languagesis governed by rules ,thestudy of theseru

4、les constitutes a major branch oflinguistics studiesSemantics语义学 :the study of meaning wasgraduallydevelopedand became known as semanticsPragmatics语用学 :when the study of meaning is conducted,not inisolaion,butinthecontextofuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguistic study called pragmaticsSociolinguistic

5、s社会语言学 :the study of all these social aspects oflanguage and its relation with society form the core of the branchcalled sociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics心理语言学 : Psycholinguistics relates the study oflanguage to psychologyAppliedlinguistics应用语言学 :findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoften be applied to the

6、 solution of such practical problems as therecovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguisticsOtherrelatedbranchsincludeanthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics,mathematicallinguistics,andcomputational linguistics.Some important distinctions

7、in linguistics 。人类学 / 神经语言学 / 数理语言学 / 计算语言学1 .Prescriptive vs Descriptive规定性与描述性Descriptive ： a linguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for“ correct.” behaviorModern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, a

8、nd mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on“ high ” written l2.Synchronic vs. diachronic共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study In modern linguistics,

9、synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.3.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in wri

10、ting(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language4.Language and parole语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual use5.Competence and performance能力与运用Chomsky defin

11、es competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules oflanguagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言？ Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language:语言的特性Language is a rule-

12、governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have differentwords for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is wellillustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare s playand J

13、uliet ” : “ A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 武断性2) productivity 创造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement 移位性5) cultural transmission文化传递性单元二

14、 Two major media of communication: speech and writingThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationand are of interestto linguisticstudiesare the1phonic medium of language.用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。Phonetics 语音学 : is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; i

15、t is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s language.Three branchesof phonetics: articulatoryphonetics发音语音学（ most highly developed ） , auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 andacoustic phonetics声学语音学Articulation phonetics(发音语音学 ):How a speaker uses his speechorgans articulate the sounds.Auditory

16、 phonetics （听觉语音学） :How ahearer perceivesthesounds.Acoustic( 声学语音学） :How the sounds are transmitter .Organs of speech发音器官The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in threeimportant areas or cavities:The pharyngeal cavity咽腔 -the throatThe oral cavity 口腔 -the mouthThe nasal cavity鼻腔 -t

17、he noseVibration of the vocal cords (声带 ) results ina quality of speechsounds called“ voicing浊音， which” is a feature of all vowels元音and some consonants辅音。单词补充：01) velum: The soft palate.软腭2) uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的

18、圆锥状肉块3) larynx: n. 喉4) vocal cord: 声带05) membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separatingor connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant.膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官6) the soft palate: 软腭7) the hard palate: 硬腭08) the teeth ridge:齿龈09) alveolus: A

19、 tooth socket in the jawbone牙槽颚骨处的牙床10) the teeth: 牙齿11) the lips: 上下唇12) blade of tongue: 舌面13) back of tongue: 舌根14) pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔15) nasal cavity: 鼻腔16) velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as (g) in good and (k) in cup. 软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如

20、在good 中的(g) 以及在cup 中的 (k)17) the tip of the tongue:舌尖18) the upper front teeth:上齿19) the roof of the mouth:上颚20) the lower lip:下唇但实际上，同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同，比如Pit 和 spit 中的 /P/ 音发音就不一样。在宽式标音的基础上，再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。Classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类vowels andconstantsThe b

21、asic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in thepronunciationof theformerthe airthat comes from the lungsmeets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, orthe mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way oranother .Consonants: the sounds in the productio

22、n of whichthere isan obstructionof theair steam atsome pointof the vocal tract.Vowels: the sounds in the productionofwhichnoarticulators come very close together and the airstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstruction.Classification of English constantsClassificationintwoways:intermsofmannerof

23、articulation :stops ,fricatives, affricates ,nasals ,liquids ,glides.:intermsofplaceofarticulation:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velar ,glottal.International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)The vowels (monophthongs and diphthongs)元音（单元音 &双元音）The constants 辅音Broad transcription: transcription w

24、ithletter-symbols only. (indictionaries and teaching textbooks)用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.Classification of English vowels:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低 (classification of3 groups:front,central,and back):theopennessof

25、themouth, 口的张 开程度 (classificationof42groups:close vowels,semi-close vowels,semi-open vowels,and open vowels):the shape of the lips园唇与否 (rounded or not rounded):length of the vowels 元 音 的 长 度 (long vowels and short vowels,corresponding to the distinction of tense and lax vowels)contrast.可以出现在不同语音组合中的

26、同一为止，产生意义差别。/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, thetwo words are said to form a minimal pair. pen and ben最小对立

27、对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。Phonology and phonetics音系学和语音学 both are the studies of speech sounds. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular lan

28、guage; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaningin linguistic communication.音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。Phone ，phoneme and allophone 语音，音位，音位变体 Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a lang

29、uage.Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对rope and robe that /P/

30、and /b/ can occur in the same environmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning;thereforetheyarein phonemicSome rules in phonology几条音系规则Sequential rules序列规则：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki,ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.Assimilation rules 同化规则（ one sound to another by “ copying a ” feature of a se

31、quential phoneme, thus make the two phones similar） Deletion rule 省略规则（ it tell us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. ）Sign, design, there is nog sound./Signature, designation the g is pronounced./ Delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal constant.Supras

32、egmental features: the phonemic features that occur abovethe level of the segments .切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。the main suprasegmental features are: stress, tone, intonation.超切分特征 重音，声调，语调第三单元 Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed

33、. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则，有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.语素：语言最小的意义单位Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself.(independent)Freemorphemes:areindepend

34、entunitsofmeaning and can be used freely all by themselves. For example:boy.Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand byitself. 粘 着语素 必 须 和其他 语素 结合 成单 词 cannotbe usedindependentlybut have to be combinedwithothermorphemes,either free or bound, to form a word.Roots: A root is often see

35、n as a part of a word, it can never standby itself although itbears clear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombined with another root or an affix to form a word. Such roots3are numerous in English for example: geo-“ bears the meaning of“ the earth” . When it combines with another root - ology ” meaning “ abr

36、anch oflearningwe” , gotthe word“ geology which” means“ the study of the earth s structureBound Morpheme includes two types: (1) root (2)Affix(词缀 )1)Inflectionalaffixes( 屈 折 词 缀 )(inflectionalmorphemes):Inflectionalaffixes:manifestvariousgrammaticalrelations orgrammatical categories such as number,

37、tense, degree, and case.affixes attached tothe endof wordsto indicategrammaticalrelationships are inflectional2)Derivational affixes( 派生词缀 ) Derivational affixes: are added to an existing form to create a word. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation i

38、s called a derivative.A) prefix: A prefix comes before words.B)suffix ： that is added to the stem；they modify the meaning ofthe original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Root and stem （词根和词干）( 本书未涉及 )1) Root 2) StemThe differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a w

39、ord which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Individualistic UndesirablesIndividualist (stem) undesirable (stem)Ind

40、ividual (stem) desirable (stem)dividual (stem) desire (root, stem)divide(root, stem)Affixation 词缀法（ Derivation 派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.Prefixation 前缀 ： Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word, modify th

41、e meaning ofthe stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.Suffixes at the end of a word, are added to the end of stems. They modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Compounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the fo

42、rmation of new words by joining two or more stems .Compounding is popular and important way of forming new words in English. In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed ad the addition of affixes to stems to formnew words, and compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than tw

43、o words to create new words.Features of compounds1.orthographically( 拼写特征 ): a compound can be written as one with or without a hyphen, or as two separate words. For example: armchair , follow-up, thunder bird.2.syntactically( 句法特征 ): the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the

44、 part of speech of the second element. For example: ice-cold (adj.) greenhouse (noun).3.sematically （语意特征） : the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of the meanings of its components. For example: a blackleg is not a legthat is black, it means che

45、ater4.phonetically （语音特征） : the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.单元四 Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.As a major component of grammar , syntax consists of a set of abstract ru

46、les that allow words to be combined with other words toform grammatical sentences.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。The referring expression is grammatically call

47、ed subject.主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。 Subject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicateTypes

48、 of sentences 句子的类型The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains asubject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.简单句含一个主语和一个谓语的独立句子The coordinate sentence or compound sentence: containstwoclauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并4列句含由连接词串联起来的两

49、个句子成分The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses,one ofwhich is incorporated into the other.The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, onesubordinatingtheother .复合句由两个或两个以上的子句组成，其中之一为主要子句，其余为从属子句。 a complex sentence containstwo, or more, clauses, one which is incorporated in

50、to another. Thatis, the two clauses in complex sentence hold unequal status, onesubordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinated, clauseis normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which itis embedded is called matrix clause.Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sent

51、ence.1. anembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause.2.mostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledasubordinator, suchas “ thatif” ”,”.3.anemb eddedclausemaynotfunctionasa grammaticallywell-formedsentence if itstands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes.Languageisa highlystructuredsystemof communication.Sentencesarenotformedbyrandomly(随意 )combininglexicalitems,butbyfollowingasetofsyntacticrulesthatarrangelinguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of wordsnotonlymeaningfulbu