语言学_Language_and_Society剖析

1、Language and SocietylWhat is supposed to happen when two English people who have never met before come face to face in a train?Interrelation between language and societyInterrelation between language and society lLanguage is not always used to exchange information as is generally assumed, but rather

2、 it is sometimes used to fulfill an important social function to maintain social relationship between people.The relatedness between language and society -There are many more indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. lThe use of language is in part determined by the users s

3、ocial background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)lLanguage, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. lAs a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evalu

4、ation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic r ).Interrelation between language and societyInterrelation between language and societylAny use of language is socially marked/stamped. l“You are what you say.” (尔即尔所言) l简单说来，语言现象与社会现象的关系就是一种简单说来，语言现象与社会现象的关系就是一种“共变共变”的的关系，互相影响，语言影响社会，

5、社会影响语言关系，互相影响，语言影响社会，社会影响语言lTwo kinds of sociolinguistic studylA sociolinguistic study of language (central concern of sociolinguistics) 从语言的社会属性出发，用社会学的方法研究语言，从从语言的社会属性出发，用社会学的方法研究语言，从社会的角度解释语言变体和语言演变。社会的角度解释语言变体和语言演变。lA sociolinguistic study of society (Sociology of language) 从语言变体和语言演变的事实，来解释相关的社

6、会现象从语言变体和语言演变的事实，来解释相关的社会现象及其演变和发展的过程。及其演变和发展的过程。 lTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studieslMacro sociolinguistics （a birds-eye view） 研究国家或地区的语言状况及其与社会发展的相互研究国家或地区的语言状况及其与社会发展的相互关系（双语制或多语制社团中的语言选择、语言规关系（双语制或多语制社团中的语言选择、语言规划、语言态度等方面的研究）划、语言态度等方面的研究）lMicro sociolinguistics （a worms-eye view） 研究小群体的言语

7、特征及其与社会环境的相互关系研究小群体的言语特征及其与社会环境的相互关系（言语行为、言语事件、话语的顺序，同时还探讨（言语行为、言语事件、话语的顺序，同时还探讨一个群体所用的语言的变化与社会因素的关系）一个群体所用的语言的变化与社会因素的关系）A sociolinguistic study of languagelSpeech communitieslLanguage, dialects, and varietieslRegisterSpeech communities 言语社团言语社团lA group of people who form a community, which may has

8、 as few members as a family or as many as a country, and share the same language or a particular speech variety of language. 指形成一个社团，小到一个家庭大到一个国家，并有一种指形成一个社团，小到一个家庭大到一个国家，并有一种共同的言语或言语变体的一群人。共同的言语或言语变体的一群人。Language, dialects, and varietieslLanguage: writing system; may include several dialects; often

9、 politically defined lSpeech variety is no more than a dialectal variety of a language 方言是一种语言的变体方言是一种语言的变体。 lChinese vs. CantonesedialectlRegional dialect vs. temporal dialect 地域方言地域方言 时间方言时间方言/ /历时变体历时变体lSocial dialect vs. idiolect 社会方言社会方言 个人语言个人语言lStandard dialect vs. non-standard dialect 标准方言标准

10、方言 非标准方言非标准方言 In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional dialectsregional dialects, sociolectssociolects and registersregisters. （accent） Regional dialect vs. temporal dialect Regional dialect vs. temporal dialect lRegional dialect is a language var

11、iety used by people living in the same geographical region (e.g. Br.E. & Am.E.).lRegional dialect often coincides with geographical barriers/ boundaries, like mountains, rivers, etc. accent lTransition from one dialect to another is gradual rather than abrupt. Two neighboring dialects are often

12、intelligible. lTemporal dialect: the variety of language associated with a particular period of time.lOld English; Middle English; Modern English diachronic/historical Social dialect vs. idiolectSocial dialect vs. idiolect lSocial dialect (also sociolect) refers to a variety of language associated w

13、ith a particular social group.lIdiolect (language and individuality) is the speech variety of an individual. It is the features of speech or writing which distinguish one individual from others, such as voice quality, speech rhythm, diction, and other stylistic features. e.g Shakespeares language.St

14、andard vs. non-standard dialectlStandard dialect is the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers lA standard variety generallylenjoys a wide range of intelligibilitylcommand of which i

15、s the goal of formal language instructionlfunctions as the public means of communication lNon-standard dialectlUsed in a specific speech communities lValuable functions in intimate settings and for individual group identityl Am E vs. BEVl讨论：语言或方言有无好坏、高低贵贱之分？lThe scientific study of languages has con

16、vinced scholars that all languages, and correspondingly all dialects, are equally good as linguistic system.lValue judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. (Peter Trudgill) 从语言学的角度来看，所有的语言都是平等的，没有高低贵贱从语言学的角度来看，所有的语言都是平等的，没有高低贵贱之分；方言也没

17、有好坏之分。如果有些人认为之分；方言也没有好坏之分。如果有些人认为A语言比语言比B语言语言好听，或某种方言比另一种方言正确、纯正，是因为这些人好听，或某种方言比另一种方言正确、纯正，是因为这些人对待不同语言或方言的态度不同，是社会因素造成的偏见，对待不同语言或方言的态度不同，是社会因素造成的偏见，而不是语言本身的问题。而不是语言本身的问题。l无论是哪种方言，其产生的根源都是障碍和距离，无论是哪种方言，其产生的根源都是障碍和距离，地域方言是由于地理上的障碍和距离，社会方言是地域方言是由于地理上的障碍和距离，社会方言是由于社会的障碍和距离（社会阶层的不同，种族不由于社会的障碍和距离（社会阶层的不同

18、，种族不同，宗教不同，年龄，性别都是造成社会方言的因同，宗教不同，年龄，性别都是造成社会方言的因素，其中社会阶层社会阶级的差异是社会方言变异素，其中社会阶层社会阶级的差异是社会方言变异的一个最重要的因素。）的一个最重要的因素。）Language and social factorsLanguage and social factorslSome social factors that influence our language behaviour in a social context: l1) class; l2) gender; l3) age; l4) ethnic identity;

19、 l5) education background; l6) occupation; l7) religious belief Language and ClassLanguage and ClasslWilliam Labov (拉波夫), a famous sociolinguist , conducted a survey at several departments in the City of New York in the middle of 1960s. lThe objective of his survey was to examine the relationship be

20、tween speakers social status and their phonological VARIATIONS. The Social Stratification of English in New York City (1966) 纽约英语的社会阶层性 lLabov explicitly delineated the patterns of stratification by class and style and successfully introduced class as an indispensable sociolinguistic variable. l调查纽约

21、市内不同阶层的人说英语时使用元音后的r音的情况（保留还是脱落）。元音后r 音的保留被认为是社会中上层人士说话的标志。 lThis research paradigm has become the mainstream in sociolinguistics and termed as “the quantitative paradigm”l蓝领，白领，金领，灰领的言语差异Gender differences in speech Research suggests that men and women use language in different ways.1) women use mor

22、e “fancy” color terms; mauve, beige, aquamarine, lavender, magenta 2) women use less powerful curse words (少用God damn it! Damn! Shit! Fuck you! 常用Oh, dear! Goodness me!); 3) women use more intensifiers such as terrible ,awful, so good, such fun, exquisite, lovely, divine, precious, adorable, darling

23、, fantastic. 4) women use more tag questions (John is here, isnt it?) ; 5) women use more statement questions (Dinner will be ready at seven oclock?); 6) womens linguistic behaviour is more indirect and more polite than menslNot only do men and women speak differently, but also womens speech is bett

24、er than mens speech. (why)lSociety lays down different social role for them and expects different behavior pattern from them.lMore correct social behavior is expected of women.lGender variety are the result of different social attitudes towards the behavior of men and women.l女孩要有女孩子的样子。l女性实际上是弱势群体(p

25、owerless members)。lGender and sexLINGUISTIC SEXISM LINGUISTIC SEXISM 语言性别歧视语言性别歧视l许多职业名称如doctor, professor, engineer等，人们习惯于把它们跟男性联系在一起，若要指称女性，往往要加上woman一词，如woman doctor。 A professor usually sees his students during office hours. l英语把每个人都看做male， 不论是普通人（man in the street）还是超人（superman），不论是外行人（layman）还

26、是唯唯诺诺的人（yes-man），除非特殊说明，所有的人，不论总统还是乞丐，都是男人。 Male-oriented 社会l还有一些名称含有男性的语素-man， 如chairman, congressman, spokesman, salesman等，也用来指女性LINGUISTIC SEXISMLINGUISTIC SEXISMlAccording to Ruth King (1991:2-3), We can assume an act of linguistic discrimination against women has occurred if: l1. there is a dif

27、ference in the way men and women are treated; 2. this differing treatment is less favourable to women; l3. the basis for the difference is gender relatedlKing, Ruth. 1991. Talking Gender; A Guide to Nonsexist Communication. Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman Ltd. Register theory (Variation with the use) lHa

28、lliday: RegisterlL varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations. lThe type of L which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.lHalliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: lfield of discourse, 话语范围话语范围ltenor of disc

29、ourse, 话语基调话语基调lmode of discourse. 话语方式话语方式lField of discourse: related to what is going on, the purpose and the subject matter of communication 指正在发生的事，包含谈论的事指正在发生的事，包含谈论的事lTechnical: linguistic lectures, specialist communication vocabulary lNon-technical: shopping, chatting2) Tenor of discourse: t

30、he participants who are taking part in this exchange of meaning, who they are and what kind of relationship they have to one another 指谈话参加者、他们的身份、他们之间的相互关系指谈话参加者、他们的身份、他们之间的相互关系3) Mode of discourse: what part the language is playing in this particular situation, for example, in what way the language

31、 is organized to convey the meaning, and what channel is used-written or spoken or a combination of the two 指语言在具体环境里起什么作用，语言通过什么方式组织起来达指语言在具体环境里起什么作用，语言通过什么方式组织起来达到传递意义的目的，及通过什么渠道到传递意义的目的，及通过什么渠道-书面还是口头，还是两者书面还是口头，还是两者并用并用Degree of formality -Five stages of formality (Martin Joos)lIntimate: Up you

32、go, chaps! 亲密体lCasual: Time you all went upstairs now. 随便体lConsultative: Would you mind going upstairs right away, please? 询议体lFormal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once.正式体lFrozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the upper floor by way of the staircase. 冷冻体-Note: Different styles of

33、the same language can be characterized through differences at three levels: syntactic, lexical and phonologicalIllustrationIllustrationlThe register of a lecture on biology can be analyzed as: lField: scientific (biological) lTenor: teacher-students/lecturer-audience (formal, polite) lMode: oral (pr

34、epared)Sociolinguistic study of societylLanguage contact lPidgin and Creole languageslChoosing a codelBilingualism and diaglossialCode switchinglMonolingual: Speakers of a single language control different varieties of that language.lBilingual: People develop some ability in a second language.lHow t

35、o describe?lMonolingual speech communities are rare; monolingual countries are even rarer.lBilingualism the two languages are in contact.lThis contact may lead to interference.lPidgin, CreolelPidgin: not a native language of anyone.lLinguistically, pidgins are characterized bylA limited vocabulary 词

36、汇有限词汇有限lA great use of paraphrase and metaphor大量的迂回与引申大量的迂回与引申lA simplified phonological system, and a reduced morphology and syntax 语语法结构简单法结构简单lEg. Nigerian Pidgin English; Vietnamese Pidgin French; New Guinea Pidgin German, etc.l上海话中的洋泾浜英语上海话中的洋泾浜英语lHe belong China-side now. (He is in China now.)

37、lMy belong sorry. (Im sorry.)lPay the missy tea. lTwo piecee booklMountain people mountain sealGood good study day day uplFrom pidgin to creoleslAs a result of intermarriage, the pidgin is spoken at home and learned by children as a mother tongue.lA pidgin becomes a creole when it has acquired native speakers. (creolization)lEg. Jamaican Creole, Hawaiian Creole EnglishlDiglossia: Two distinct varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions. 双言双言制，双言现象制，双言现象lSwitzerland: lH(igh) variety高标准语高标准语: High German as the stand