第二章：词的构成方式

1、 Morphological structure of English words and their word-formation外语学院 徐红新 1.Morpheme1.1 Definition of morphemeMorpheme)=Greek morph(form)+-eme(unit)It denotes the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.Q: How many morphemes does the word have

2、?E.g. mono-morphemic: sky double-morphemic: chill + y, boy + ish triple-morphemic: un+dress+ed, care+less+ness four-morphemic: un+fruit+ful+ness over-four-morphemic: un+gentle+man+li+ness transportationUncarefulnessdenationalization1.2 AllomorphA morpheme may take various shapes or forms. E.g. s in

3、books, pigs, horses has the same meaning “more than one”, yet it has three different sounds. The three forms are variants of the same morphemes s. They are called allomorphs.An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morph as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. e.g. ion,-tion,-sion,-atio

4、n.They do not differ in meaning and function, but show a slight difference in sound .More examples:In-,il,ir,im-edCon-,com,col 2. classification of morphemesA: Free morphemes & bound morphemesFree morpheme is the one that can be uttered alone with meaning.It can exist on its own without a bound

5、morpheme.It is a word in traditional sense.E.g. man, book, read, eye, skyA bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance, it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.E.g. reread, unkind,happilyInflectional elements are affixes are bound morphemes.B: Roots and affix

6、esRoot is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.E.g. work, worker, working, worked, workableRoots are either free or bound.a: free roots can stand alone as words. E.g. book, pen, fan, hand, bodyb: bound roots belong to the class of bound morphemes

7、.E.g. contain, detain, retain (to hold) conceive,Revive,vitamin,vital,vividInspect,expect,introspect,retrospect,Respect,suspect,prospect,perspect,circumspect环顾四周Interpersonal, interaction, interplay, interlanguage, intercontinentJect: to throwDeject(扔下，使情绪低落): downEject逐出）outConjecture（推想，猜出）: toget

8、herInject（注射）:intoInterject（插入）: betweenObject（反对）:againstProject（投射）: forwardReject（拒绝）: backSubject（臣民，从属）: underAbject（被抛弃的）: away2. AffixAffix is a collective form for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.They may be divided into inflectional; affixes and de

9、rivational affixes.Inflectional affixes serve to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative degree or superlative degree 表示词的语法意义的是屈折词缀。They express the following meanings:Plurality名词复数名词复数The genitive case 名词所有格名词所有格The comparative and superlative degrees 形容词形容词/副词比较级、最高副词比较级、最高

10、级级The verbal endings 动词词尾变化动词词尾变化e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes; -en in oxene.g. s in boys, childrense.g. -er in words like smaller; -est in words like smallest.a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person singular present tense. b. -ing in words like eating, shows th

11、e present participle or gerund. c. -(e)d in words like worked shows the past tense or past participle.Derivational affixes（派生词缀） are so called because when they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word.E.g. de- defrost -decentralization -detrain -decode -eer(人， 蔑视) Profiteer, blackmarke

12、teerWhats the difference between them? InflectionalOnly have its grammatical meaning;Doesnt change meaning or part of speech of a word. (workworks)Indicates syntactic relations between different words in a sentence. DerivationalChanges meaning or part of speech of a word. stem.( like-dislike, sleepa

13、sleep)Indicates semantic relations within the word. (specific lexical meaning，e.g., un-)Having lexical meaning and affective meaning.Can be added to different word class. Productive ones and dead onesIn word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix. 在构词法中在构词法中, 语素被分为词根、词干、词基和语素被分为

14、词根、词干、词基和词缀。词缀。 Root, stem, base词根、词干、词基 A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. 词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。剩余的那部分。词根、词干、词基词根、词干、词基A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affi

15、xes have been removed.词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。A base refers to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem.词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。词根、词干、词基词根、词干、词基词根（词根（rootroot）是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被）是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部

16、分。去掉后所剩余的那部分。词干词干(stem)(stem)是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。的那部分。词基词基(base)(base)是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。形式。 它与词根有区别，因为它是可以从派生角度它与词根有区别，因为它是可以从派生角度进行分析的形式，在上面可以加上派生词缀。进行分析的形式，在上面可以加上派生词缀。但是词根则不容许做进一步的分析。词基与但是词根则不容许做进一步的分析。词基与词干也是不同的，因为派生词缀和屈折词缀词干也是不同的，因为派生词缀和屈折词缀都可以加在词基上，而只有屈折词缀可以加都可以加在词基上，

17、而只有屈折词缀可以加在词干上。在词干上。Task: Analyze the word in terms of root, stem and basee.g., (root/base) (derivational suffix) desire able (derivational prefix) ( base) un desirable (a.) (stem/base) (inflectional suffix) undesirable (n.) s (root/stem/base) (inflectional suffix) desire (v.) d free-free rootMorphe

18、me bound root bound affixes inflectional derivational prefix suffix (en-, be-, a-) Word-formationDerivationConversionCompositionAbbreviationBlendingBack-formation1.CompositionCompounding复合法The way of putting two words together to form a new word is composition. The word is called compound.（free morp

19、heme+free morpheme）1.1 How to identify a compoundWritten form: 3 typesSemantically: not simply semantically add together redcoat,greenhouse,greenroom,greenhorn,greenfly,greenback,greenline,greentail心疼，胃疼；穿大鞋，穿小鞋；钢琴，钢的琴Grammatically: Blackbird，not “a black night bird” special structurePhonetically: s

20、tress syllable always on the first汉语第二个音节：轻声东西，运气，下场，大意，管家，自然1.2 semantic analysisMostly the part of speech is decided by the second part. (except breakthrough)Mostly , modifier+center: fifteen,Sunday,reading-roomBut maybe the same structure with different meaningE.g. homeletterhomevoyagehomelifehom

21、ebirdhomesicknesshomegamesEven some of them are very hard to analyze.E.g. womannostril=nosu(nose)+yrel(hole)1.3 Classification of compoundSemantically, into transparent and opaqueRailway, ashtray, bookshelf, fingerprint, snowwhiteWeather-beaten, house-mother, high-born, telltale, hole-in-the-wall Tr

22、ansparent- endocentric compounds向心复合词Opaque-exocentric compounds外心复合词CompoundOpen-handed, brainwash, couchpotato, mousepotato, egghead, nethead, fathead, blackmaillStructurally,into Compound nouns, compound adj. and compound v.lCompound nounslAdj+n. harddisk,easychair,deadline,lN+p.p. machine-buildi

23、ng ,handwritingl N.+n. information highway, barcode lipservice,spaceship,weekend, she-wolflAdv+n. aftereffect, overburden,upgrade,lAdv+v. upstart，downfall, onflow,lV+adv put-off,show-off gentlemanlV+n. breakfast,swearword,jumpsuitlN+v. toothpick, snowfall, watersupplySyntactic relation between the m

24、orphemes in compound1. modifier+ center: science fiction,blackboard 2.sub.+verb:sunrise,sunshine,motion picture,daybreak,rattlesnake3.verb+obj.:passport,tongue-twister,pickpocket,scarecrow,haircut4. sub.+obj.:powerplant,gaslight,sugarcane5. parallel structure:hide-and-seek,deaf-and-mute6.apposition:

25、girlfriend,killerwhale compound adj. 分为五种:（1）由状语转化而成的复合形容词：an off-the-cuff opinion （临时想起的一点意见），round-the-clock discussion（连续二十四小时的讨论会），the ahead-of-schedule general election（提前举行的大选），an off-camera announcer（影屏外的播音员），first on-scene attempt to detect life on Mars（第一次对火星上有无生命的实景考察）（2）由短语动词转化而成的复合形容词：a

26、back-up generator（备用发电机），a stand-up collar（竖领），a walk-in closet（人可以走进去的大壁橱），a break-in period（草创时期），a walk-on appearance（跑龙套角色的演出），a seethrough shirt（薄得透明的衬衫）（3）由动词不定式转化而成的复合形容）由动词不定式转化而成的复合形容词词：take-home pay （扣除捐税后的实得（扣除捐税后的实得工资）工资），a cross-border raid（越界袭（越界袭击），击），a keep-fit class（保健班）。（保健班）。the t

27、alk-talk，fight-fight strategy可译成可译成“停停打打的战略停停打打的战略” ； divide-and-rule policy可译成可译成 “分而治之的政策分而治之的政策” hit-and-run tactics可译成可译成 “打了就跑的战打了就跑的战术术” 。（4）由带有介词的后置定语构成的复合形容词：）由带有介词的后置定语构成的复合形容词：这这种结构的形态标志是形容词种结构的形态标志是形容词+名词或名词名词或名词+名词。名词。Foreign-policy discussions（外交政策的讨论）（外交政策的讨论）=discussions on foreign po

28、licy, national-security matters（国家安全事物）（国家安全事物）=matters concerning national security, flood-retreat cultivation（洪水退去后的耕种）（洪水退去后的耕种）=cultivation after the retreat of a flood, weather modification ideas（改变气候的设想）（改变气候的设想）=ideas about modification of the weather, a troop withdrawal proposal（撤军的建议）（撤军的建议

29、）=a proposal for withdrawal of troops, a coffee-price brake（煞住（煞住咖啡价格的涨风）咖啡价格的涨风）=a brake on the rise of the price of coffee，the election-eve situation（大选（大选前夕的形势）前夕的形势）=the situation on the eve of an election.(5)由定语从句压缩而成的复合形容词：由定语从句压缩而成的复合形容词：an easy-to-paint portrait（一幅容易绘画的（一幅容易绘画的像）像）, a diffic

30、ult-to-operate machine（一（一部难于操纵的机器）部难于操纵的机器）=a machine which is difficult to operate, hard-to-get-at volumes（难以借到的图书）。类似的结（难以借到的图书）。类似的结构还有：构还有：a not-so-strong football team（一个实力不太强的足球队），（一个实力不太强的足球队），the too-eager-not-to-lose old champions（那些（那些求胜心切的老冠军），求胜心切的老冠军），the still-to-be-made announcement（

31、有待宣布的声（有待宣布的声明）。明）。Syntactic relation between the morphemes in adj.Adj+adverdial:world-famous,homesickVerb+adverbial:quick-frozen,half-baked,new-born,home-madeSub.+verb:hen-pecked,poverty-strickenVerb+obj:peace-loving,telltaleAttribute+noun.: white-collar,chicken-heartedParallel:bitter-sweet, social

32、-political,shabby-genteel(穷酸的) Compound verbMainly formed by conversion and backformation.By conversion: machine-gun, spotlight（使突出）,nickname, honeymoon,By backformation:massproduction,sight-seeing, chainsmoker,proofreading(校对)2.Conversion转化法A word is used as another word-class with new meaning and

33、function but without any change in form. The method is conversion functional shiftzero-derivation.He fathered a son.Who father your son?Einstein fathered relativity.（创立）He fathered a proposal.He fathered a controversy.（引起）The cat nosed her kitten.The bulldozer nosed the rock off the road.He nosed hi

34、s car through the gate.2.1Convert into verbNoun into verbR.Quirk 把转成动词与原名词的语义关系分成7种：To put inon 把放入（地方、容器、建筑物等）To give n. to provide with n.给予，提供To deprive of 去除Towith n. 用做（人体部位或工具）To beact as n. with respect to 像那样To change into, 使成为To sendgo by n. 用寄送； 乘前往According to the context deal with the co

35、nversion flexibly. Eg. To dustAdj into verbTo dry, to blind, to narrow, to empty, to freeAdv into verbTo yes, to better, to further, to up, to outPrep. Into verbTo round, crossExclamation into verbTo shoo(“嘘嘘”地赶), to shush（to be quiet）2.2 into n.Verb into n.The nouns from verb mostly indicate the or

36、iginal action and state, so they always collocate with to have, to take, to make and to give .Eg. Have a look，have a try, a rest.Semantically, nouns from verb may refer to:Doer of the action: cook, cheat, sneakResult of verb: import, find, refuseTool: catch, cover, wrapPlace: dump, turn, divide, pas

37、se.英语中有不少短语动词转化为名词，构成名词化短语动词。名词化短语动词从其成分之间的组合关系来看可分成两大类：右分枝结构(right branching)和左分枝结构(left branching)。E.g. break-up，fallout, cut-back outlay, upstart, outcome同源对似词(cognates/etymological doublets)Eg.repeat重奏，重演/repetition重复:command（指挥；指令）/commandment（戒律；圣训）combine（联合企业；联合收割机）/combination(联合；结合体)exhaus

38、t（排出的气；排气装置）/exhaustion（筋疲力尽；耗尽）Adj into n.Fullcomplete conversion and partial conversionFull conversion refers to the converted nouns have all the grammatical features of the noun.(-s, s,theaan n.) Eg. nativePartial conversion refers to the converted nouns only have some features of the noun.The po

39、or, the very unfortunate, the poorer than oneself, the most corrupt of them.这一类词大致可分成以下五种：a.表示一种类的概念，指具有某种特点的一类人，不指个别人。例如：These books are intended for the deaf and mute.b.以-s, -se, -sh, -ch结尾表示民族概念的形容词转化为名词，与定冠词连用，指整个民族。例如：The Danish are a seafaring nation.c.表示抽象概念，指具有某种特点的东西。例如：It is highly importa

40、nt to distinguish between the false and the true.d.最高级形容词转化为名词，其中有一些词用在固定词组或习语词组中。例如：He was at his best when talking about music.e.由过去分词构成的形容词转化为名词。这类词如果前面加定冠词，则不指一般人，而指特定的人，如the deceased（死者），the accused（被告），the deserted（被遗弃的人），the betrothed（订婚者），the bereaved（死难者的家属），the condemned（被定罪的人）等。上述名词化形容词前均

41、加上定冠词，但也有例外的情况。在表示两个相对概念的词并列时，定冠词可以省略。例如：Both old and young took part in the run.Well stand by you through thick and thin.有些名词化形容词出现在固定词组中，也不用定冠词。例如：He hoped that the repairs would stop the leak for good.Others into n.The haves and havenots, ins and outs, pros and cons, ,ups and downs, ifs and buts,

42、 whys and hows, a must2.3 converted into adj.(nounce words)Over-the-counterOut-of-the-wayOut-of-the-controlOut-of-the-shapeOut-of-the-conditionOut-of-the-powerOut-of-action3.Abbreviation 缩略法The abbreviated words are made by omitting or shortening the word syllables. The word-formation is called abbr

43、eviation or shortening.Why?A.The trend of simplificationmonosyllabism (Chinese-doublesyllabism)B. to save time and space, past only in political and military areas, now nearly every field.汉语中6万，英语中45万Side-effects:过分求简，影响准确，造成混乱。南大，三等公民，省长，白领，你永别了,坐专机来的3.1 Clipped word 截短词The word is made by cutting

44、out the original words one or more syllables.3.1.1 out the head 掐头型Buscellocyclephonequakevanwigscopeplane3.1.2 out the end 去尾型Adautobikegaslavmemophotomiketele3.1.3 out the head and end 掐头去尾型Flutecdeptscriptfridge3.1.4 out the middle 去中型Asst,maths,3.1.5 clipping from phrasesDaily,weekly,finals,taxi,pub,pop,zoo,permcontractions 缩约形式It refers to the abbreviated words with suspension points. GovtRecdeerneercant产生新意：Fan-fanatic ;miss-mistress3.2Initialism 首字母缩略词It refers to the abbreviated word made by the first letter of each word of a phrase, it would be rea