戴炜栋_新编简明语言学教程文档版

1、Linguisticsisascientificstudyoflanguage.语百学是对语百进行的科学研究。Generallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究themajorbranchesoflinguistics:语言学内部主要分支Phonetics:thestudyofthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.（语首学）对语言交流中语首的研究Phonologythestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningin

2、communication.（音位学）如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义.Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformword幽法学、形态学）如何排列以及组合起来构成词语Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentence的法学）如何在组成语法上可接受的句子Semantics（语义学）thestudyofmeaninginabstraction百是用来传达意义的°Pragmatics（语用学）th

3、estudyofmeaningincontextofus洲来研究上下文的意义跨学科分支Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.社会语百学是语百和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.心理语百学是语百与心灵的关系的研先Appliedlinguisticsisthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.应用语百学是外国和第一语百教

4、学的研先Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语百学中一些基本区分1. DescriptiveorPrescriptiveAlinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。2. SynchronicandDiachronicThedescriptio

5、nofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy。共时性对语言在历史的某一时间点的描述，历时性对语言随着时间的变化而变化的描述3. SpeechandWriting.4. LangueandParoleThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure（索绪尔）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisti

6、csystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized（实际的）language,orrealizationof1angue.瑞士语言学家索绪尔于20实际早期提出，语言是一个话语社团所有成员共有的抽象的语言系统，言语是语言在实际运用中的实现。5. CompetenceandandPerformanceCompetenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealiza

7、tionofthisknowledgeinutterances（发声）.语言能力定为理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识，语言运用在语言交流中的具体实现。6Modernlinguisticsandtraditionalgrammar现代语百学与传统语法Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.语百学是描述性的而传统语法是规定。Secondly,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.现代语百学豕认为口头语是

8、最基本的，而不是书面语。Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.现在语言学不同于传统语法还在于它不强行将语言放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是有任意性，用于人类交流的语音标志系统。语言的本质特征1 Languageisasystem,i.e,elementsoflanguageareco

9、mbinedaccordingtocertainrules.语言是一个系统，即语言的元素相结合，按照一定的规则2 Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系，从这个意义上说语言是任意的。3 Languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.语百是有尸，因为所有语百的主要媒介者B是尸首语言是人类特有

10、的,4 Languageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.它与其他生物的交际系统不同Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的结构，识别特征Designfeaturesreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.识别的特征指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征1arbitrariness-

11、Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconventionbetweenmeaningandsounds.任意性-意味意义和语言之间的没有什么逻辑的联系2productivityorCreativity-languageisproductivityorcreativityinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.能产性-语言是能产的或具有创造性的，它使得者可以建构或和解释的新的符号3duality-languageissystem,whichconsistsoftwos

12、etsofstructures.双重性-语百系统，它由两种结构组成套thelowerorthebasiclevel-soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowordsthehigherlevel-wordswhichare移位性-语言能够指meaningful.4Displacement-Languagecanbeusetorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker远离说话人所在场合的情境5Culturaltransmissionwhilehu

13、mancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.文化传承性-而人类的语百能力具有遗传的基础，任何语百系统的细节都要罪传教和学习。Chapter2Phoneticsandphonology语音学是对语言端nguagPhoneticsthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurint

14、heworld介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中所有的语音Threebranchesofphonetics语首学二个分支Articulatorya'tikjuleit?riphonetics-发首语首学(历史最悠久)Auditory.'?:dit?riphonetics-听觉语首学Acoustic?'ku:stikphonetics-声学语首学threeimportantcavitiesOrgansofspeech二个重要区域发音器官Pharyngealf?rind?i:?lcavity-thethroat0r?;咽胫，喉咙Theoralcavity-themouth;口胫

15、，嘴巴Nasal'ne?z?lcavity-thenose.鼻腔，鼻子Lips,teeth,teethridgerid?(alveolus)齿龈,hardpalate硬腭,softpalate(velum)软腭,uvula'ju:vjul?小舌,tipoftongueInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).国际音标Orthographic?:。？*？fiklrepresentationofspeechsounds语首的正子法表征Broadtranscription【tr?n'skr?p?】-thetranscriptionwithlette

16、r-symbolsonly宽式标音是用代表字母的符号标音Narrowtranscription-thetranscriptionwithdiacritics.,dai?kritik严式标音是用代表字母的符号和变音共同标音Voiceless:whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.,?nim'pi:did清音是当声带完全张开，气流通过声带而不引起振动Voicing/voiced:whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelu

17、ngsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationva'bre?neffect浊化是当气流在强行穿过的时候会使他们以不同的速度振动。ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英语语音的分类Vowels'va?landConsonants'k?ns?n?nt元音和辅音Classificationofconsonants辅首的分类-Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensionsdi'men?n:1Th

18、emannerofarticulation2Theplaceofarticulation英语中的辅音按两种标准划分：1发音方式2发音部位Themannerofarticulationstops/plosives:p,t,d,k,g;闭塞音fricatives'frik?tivf,v,s,z,h;affricates'?frikit:,;塞擦音liquids'likwid:r;l流音nasals'ne?z?l:m,n,;鼻音glideslaid:w,j.滑音Theplaceofarticulationbilabialbai'leibi?l:p,m,w,b双

19、唇音labiodental'leibi?u'dentl:f,v;唇齿音dental.dent?l:,;齿音alveolar?l'vi?l?:t,d,s,z,n,l,r;齿龈音palatal'p?l?t?l:,j;腭音velar'vi:l?:k,g,;软颗音glottal'3?tl:h.喉音ClassificationofEnglishvowels英语兀首的分类1. thepartofthetonguethatisraised-front,centerorback2. theopeningofthemouthclose,semi-close,sem

20、i-open,open3. theshapeofthelips-rounded,unrounded4. thelengthofthesound-tense,lax（紧，松）Monophthongs'm?n?uf?orpure/singlevowels兀首backvowelsDiphthongs'd?f,?:?orglidingvowels双兀首frontvowelscentralvowelsClose闭Semi-close:半闭Semi-open:半开Open:开PhonologyPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thati

21、s,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?Whatsound

22、svaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?Phonetics&phonologyBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage-thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaims

23、toanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone,phoneme,allophonePhone:thedifferentversionso

24、ftheabstractunitphonemePhoneme:themean-distinguishingsoundinalanguage,placedinslashmarksAllophone:asetofphones,allofwhichareversionsofonephonemePhoneAphone-aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,

25、somedon't,e.g.bt&bt,spt&spt.PhonemeAphoneme-isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinpt,tpandspt.AllophoneAllophones-thephonesthatcanrepresent

26、aphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.Phonemiccontrast-differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/inbtandpt.Complementarydistribution-allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.

27、Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.darkl&clearl,aspiratedp&unaspiratedp.MinimalpairMinimalpairwhentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but

28、,bait,bite,boat.SomerulesofphonologySequentialrulesAssimilationruleDeletionruleSequentialrules-therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,biI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswithalorar,thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertoget

29、heratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a) thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b) thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c) thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomediale

30、cts,e.g.inCantonese:牛肉，我，俄语”Assimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying"afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:indiscreetalveolarninconceivablevelarinputbilabialAssimilationinMandarin好啊haowa海啊ha

31、iya看啊kanna唱啊chang跳啊tiaowaDeletionrule-ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisnogsound;butthegsoundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.Syllable(whatissyllable?)AncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofav

32、oweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.Thesyllableconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAK,theCODA,e.g.mn.Thepeakistheessentialpart.Itisusuallyformedbyavowel.Butl,nandmmightalsofunctionaspeaksasin“apple,hidden,communism&qu

33、ot;.Suprasegmentalfeaturesthephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):Stress:wordstressandsentencestressWordstressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:import;increase;rebel;recordnoun:import;inc

34、rease;rebel;recordSimilaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:blackbird;greenhouse;hotdognounphrase:blackbird;greenhouse;hotdogThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:modifier:dining-ro

35、om;readingroom;sleepingbagdoer:sleepingbaby;swimmingfish;flyingplaneSentencestresstherelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjuncti

36、onsareusuallynotstressed.Note:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.m

37、a妈(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma马(thethirdrise)ma骂(thefourthfall)IntonationWhenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquest

38、ion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,"That'snotthebookhewants.”GrammaticalfunctionsofintonationsIntonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a) Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.b) Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthes

39、entencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g."Johndidn'tcomeMarry"Withinoneintonationunit,itmeans:Johncame,butithadnothingtodowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidn'tcome.Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:“Thosewhoboughtquickl

40、ymadeaprofit.”c) Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.d) Itsattitudinalfunctions.Fallingtone-matter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.Risingtone-politeness,encouragement,pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thes

41、pecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.Summary:Featuresthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Thesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.StressStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.Str

42、essisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.Ifawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.Insomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.IntonationWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpresside

43、as.Intonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.ToneToneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.Thesamesequenceofsegmentscanbediffer

44、entwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.DiscoveringphonemesContrastivedistribution-phonemesIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordstha

45、tdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.Howev

46、er,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.Complementarydistribution-allophonesSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme

47、.FreevariationIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeaturesFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.Distinctivefeaturesinonelangua

48、gemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.本章重点：Phonologyisamajorbranchoflinguistics.Itisthestudyofthesoundsystemsoflanguagesandofthegeneralpropertiesofsoundsystems.ThedifferencesbetweenphoneticsandphonologyPhoneticsisregardedasthelinguisticstudytoidentifyanddescribethecharacteristicsofallthespeechsoundsthatoc

49、curinallhumanlanguages,whereasphonologyisthedescriptionofthesoundsystemsandpatternsofindividuallanguages.Phoneticsprovidesthemeansforphonologicaldescription.Andinasense,phonologyisreallytheapplicationofphoneticstotheprocessofcommunicationinaparticularlanguageorlanguages.Phoneticsisthestudyoftheprodu

50、ction,perception,andphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds;phonologyattemptstoaccountforhowtheyarecombined,organized,andconveymeaninginparticularlanguages.Speaker'sm-ndmouthearlistener'smindPhonologyphoneticsPhoneticsSoundsoflanguageParole,speechactUniversalConcretePhonologyfunctioningofsoundsaspa

51、rtofalanguagelanguage,languagesystemlanguage-specificabstractPhonephoneme/AphoneisAphonemeisOneofmanypossiblesoundsinthelanguagesoftheworldThesmallestidentifiableunitfoundinastreamofspeechwordsAdistinctiveunitinthesoundsystemofaparticularlanguageAminimalunitthatservestodistinguishbetweenmeaningsofAl

52、thoughbotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,phoneticsstudiestheproduction,transmission,andreceptionofsoundswhilephonologyfocusesonthelinguisticpatternsofspeechsoundsandhowtheyareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.PronouncedinadefinedwayPronouncedinoneormoreways,dependingonthenumberofallophonesR

53、epresentedbetweenbracketsbyconventionRepresentedbetweenslashedbyconventionExample:,lExample:/b/,/l/Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Thedifferentphonesrepresentingaphon

54、emeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalleditsallophones(音位变体Thedefinitionsofphone,phoneme,allophone,minimalpairandfreevariation,theoriesonphoneme,phonemiccontrastandcomplementarydistribution,featureonphoneticsimilarityanddistinction;assimilationrule,deletionrule,suprasegmetnalfeatures(syllables,str

55、ess,tone,intonation,pitch,etc.)Howdoyoufindaphoneme?YouknowsomethingisaphonemeifitisadistinctivesoundinthelanguageHowdoyoufindthesoundsdistinctive?Ifyoufindaminimalpair,youknowthesoundsaredistinctiveWhatisminimalpair?Ifyouhavetwowordswhichareexactlyidenticalwithrespecttosoundsexceptforonesound,andth

56、edifferentsoundsareatthesameposition,andthetwowordshavedifferentmeanings,thenyouhaveaminimalpair.PhoneticsthestudyofspeechsoundsPhonologythestudyofsoundssystemsPhonemevs.phone/allophone/phoneme/abstractActualsound/t/phonemePhoneTwophonesneveroccurinthesameenvironmentcomplementarydistributionITwophon

57、escanoccurinthesameenvironmentfreevariationAlthoughwegeneralizesomerulesforwordstress,itshouldbeborninmindthatsometimestheexceptionsmay7wellmakeonegiveuptheidealofrules.Exercisesfromourschool:1. Complementarydistribution2. whatisarticulatoryphonetics,explaintheprimacyofspeechoverwriting,3. dividethefollowingwordsintomorphemes.Foreachmorpheme,identifythetype(lexicalorgrammatical,freeorbound,prefixorsuffix,inflectionalorderivational),whereapplicable.1) restate2)