英语语言学词汇学习分类

1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上AAcquisition: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subcon-scious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. “Abbreviation”, also called in some cases “clipping”, means that a word that seems unnecessarily

2、long is shortened, usually by clipping either the front or the back part of it, e.g., telephonephone, professorprof., etc.Broadly speaking, abbreviation includes acronyms that are made up from the first letters of the long name of an organization, e.g., World BankWB, European Economic CommunityEEC,

3、etc. Other examples of acronyms can be found with terminologies, to be read like one word, e.g., radio detecting and rangingradar. Test of English as a Foreign LanguageTOEFL , etc.arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a p

4、ig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some co

5、mpounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.assimilation rule? the de

6、letion rule?The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal n that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant

7、n assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as in, i or im when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-    (alveolar) inconceivable-    (velar) input-imput (bila

8、bial) The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated

9、as: delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.Antonymy? How many kinds of antonyms are there?The term “antonymy” is used for oppositions of meaning; words that stand opposite in meaning are called “antonyms”

10、, or opposites, which fall in there categories1) gradable antonyms (e.g, good-bad); (2) complementary antonyms (e.g., single-married); (3) relational antonyms (e.g., buy-sell).affixation, conversion and compounding?“Affixation” is the morphological process whereby grammatical of lexical information

11、is added to the base (root or stem). It has been the oldest and the most productive word-formation methodanalogical creation?The process of “analogical creation”, as one of the English tendencies in English word-formation, refers to the phenomenon that a new word or a new phrase is coined by analogy

12、 between a newly created one and an existing one. For example, “marathon” appeared at the First Olympic Games and by analogy modern English created such words as “telethon”, “talkthon”, etc. Analogy may create single words (e.g., sunrise-moonrise, earthrise, etc.; earthquake-starquake, youthquake, e

13、tc.) and phrases (e.g., environmental pollution-sound pollution, air pollution, cultural pollution, etc.).assimilation, dissimilation and metathesis?“Assimilation” refers to change of a sound as the result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.

14、 The assimitative processes at word in language could be explained by the “theory of least effort” ,i.e., in speaking we tend to exert as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds. Assimilation takes place in quick spee

15、ch very often. In expressions such as “immobile”, “illegal”, etc., the negative prefixes should be or have been “in-” etymologically.applied linguistics?In the broadest sense, applied Linguistics refers to the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems, such as lexicography,

16、 translation, speech pathology, etc. Applied linguistics uses information from sociology, psychology, anthropology, and information theory as well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical a

17、reas such as syllabus design, speech therapy, language planning, machine translation, various facets of communication research, and many others. In the narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the study of second /foreign language learning and teaching. It serves as a mediating area which interpr

18、ets the results of linguistic theories and makes them user-friendly to the language teacher and learner. assimilation rule - The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring so

19、unds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environme

20、nts are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, p and ph are the two phones under the phoneme /p/ in English, thus p and ph are called the allophones of the phoneme auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceiv

21、ed by the hearer.acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.B branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguist

22、ics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.“Borrowing” means the English language borrowed

23、words from foreign languages, which fall in four categories: aliens, denizens, translation-loans and semantic borrowings.“Aliens” are foreign loans that still keep their alien shapes, i. e., morphological and phonological features, e.g., “elite”, “coup détat”, “coupé”, etc.(from French). “

24、Deniens” , also foreign words, have transformed their foreign appearance, i.e., they have been Angolcized (or Americanized), e. g., “get” (a Scandinavian borrowing), “theater” (a French loan), etc. “Hybrids” are also denizens, because they are words made up of two parts both from foreign soil, such

25、as “sociology” (“socio-” from French and logy from Greek).“Translation-loans” are words imported by way of translation, e. g., “black humor” from French(“humor noir”), “found object” form French ,too (“object trouve”), etc. Finally, semantic borrowings have acquired new meaning under the influence o

26、f language or languages other than the source tongue. For example, “gift” mean “the price of a wife ” in Old English (450-1150AD), and after the semantic borrowing of the meaning of “gift or present” of the Scandinavian term “gipt”, it meant and still means “gift” in the modern sense of it.blending,

27、 abbreviation and back formation?“Blending” is a relatively complex form of compounding in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots, e.g., smogsmoke+fog, boatelboat + hotel, etc.“

28、Back-formation” refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by detecting an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language. It is a special kind of metanalyais, combined with analogical creation, e.g., editoredit, enthusiasmenthuse, etc.Bilingualis

29、m and diglossiaIt has been observerd that in some speech communities，two language are used side with each having a different role to play； and language switching occurs when the situation changges。This constitutes the situation of bilingualism。behaviorism- Traditional behaviorists view language as b

30、ehavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. A child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people around him; people recognize the childs attempts and reinforce the attempts by responding differently, the child repeats the right sounds or patterns

31、 to get the reward (reinforcement). The child learns the language gradually in much the same way as habit-forming. So imitation and practice are preliminary, discrimination and generalization are key to language development in this theory.bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which canno

32、t be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word,such as the ing,-ed and un-,im-,-ful,-tion,they can not be used alone. bound morphemes can further be classified as derivational and inflectional morphemes.CContext: It is generally considered

33、as the constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic commu

34、nication is taking place. Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifi-able, such as the sentence “China is a developing country”, it is simply a sentence to state the fact that China is a developing country, from this point of view, we can say it is a const

35、ative.culture Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or

36、customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc. Generally speaking, there are two types of culture: material and spiritual.cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of

37、 the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one lik

38、e the dogs barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolfs roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.Comple

39、mentary distribution: refers to the relation between two similar sounds which are allophones of the same phoneme. If the two sounds do not distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonemic environment and can not occur in the same phonemic environme

40、nt, they are said to be in complementary distribution. For example, the clearl and the dark are two similar sounds and they can not distinguish meaning, they appear in different situations, i.e. the clearl always appears before a vowel while the dark l always appears before a vowel and a consonant,

41、so they are two allophones of the same phoneme /l/, they are in Complementary distribution.collocation?“Collocation” is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items. For example, we can “read” a “book”; “correct” can narrowly occur w

42、ith “book” which is supposed to have faults, but no one can “read” a “mistake” because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates.“clause” is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also

43、 be classified into two kinds: finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase.category?The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject

44、, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.concord? government?“Concord ” ma

45、y be defined as requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, e.g., “man runs”, “men run”. “Government” requires that one word

46、of a particular class in a given syntactic class shall exhibit the form of a specific category. In English, government applies only to pronouns among the variable words, that is, prepositions and verbs govern particular forms of the paradigms of pronouns according to their syntactic relation with th

47、em, e.g., “I helped him; he helped me.”conjoining? embedding? recursiveness?“Conjoining” refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined with another, e. g., “John bought a cat and his wife killed her.” “Embedding” refers to the process of construction where one clause is incl

48、uded in the sentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, e.g., “I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.” By “recursiveness” we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a complex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, e.g.

49、, “I saw the man who killed a cat whoa rat whichthat”contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situat

50、ion, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events; (4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probabil

51、ity of one words co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in ponential analysis?“Componential analysis” defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. For example, we may “clip” the following words

52、 “Man”, “Woman”, “Boy” and “Girl” so that we have only separate parts of them.Man: + Human + Adult + MaleWoman: + Human + Adult -MaleBoy: +Human Adult +MaleGirl: +Human Adult Maleconceptualist viewConceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to(i

53、.e,between language and the real world);rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.This is best illustrated by the classic semantic triangle语义三角or triangleof significance意义三角suggested by Ogden and Richards: In the diagram， the SYMBOL or FOR

54、M refers to the linguistic elements（words，phrases），the REFERENT refers to the object in the concept。For example，The word“dog”is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind，i。e。，what a “dog”is like，but it is not directly linked to that particulate dog mentioned in the sentence“The dog over

55、 there looks unfriendly”，i。e， the referent in this particular case。Critical Period Hypothesis？(P150)- Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argue that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right timea specific and limited time period for language acqui

56、sitionwhich is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis(CPH).There are two versions of the CPH. While the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure, the weak holds that language learning will be mo

57、re difficult and incomplete after puberty.Cooperative Principle is a conversational principle proposed by Paul Grice, according to which in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk:Make your con

58、versation contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the participate purpose or direction of the exchange in which it you are engaged.Creole: When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their n

59、ative language, it is said to have become a Creole.D diglossia : Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of the same one language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations. design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any syste