英语词汇学（英文版）English Lexicology (II)

1、“Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.”English Lexicology (II)1Contents5. Word-Formation I: the Major Processes6. Word-Formation II: the Minor Processes7. MotivationTo be continued2Chapter 5 Word-Formation I: The Major Processes5.1 General Remarks5.

2、2 Prefixation5.3 Suffixation 5.4 Conversion5.5 Compounding35.1 General RemarksThe three major processesaffixation or derivation (17.5%)Prefixationsuffixationconversion (10.5%)composition or compounding (27%)45.2 Prefixation The definition of prefixationPrefixation is the formation of new words by ad

3、ding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, there is an insignificant number of class-changing prefixesNon-class-changing prefixes: natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfair Class-changing prefixes: force-enforce, dange

4、r-endanger, form-deform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollege 55.2 PrefixationThe classification of prefixesIn some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes) are classified according to their source, but this does not seem to help from a practical point of view. It seems more helpful to

5、 classify the most important productive prefixes by their meaning into the following ten categories:65.2 Prefixation1) Negative prefixesa-/an-amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy, dis-dishonest, discontent, discover, disobey, disagreein-Incomplete, inconsistent, incorrect, invulnerable, illogic

6、al, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance, irrational, irregularnon-nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic, nonadjustable, nonalcoholic un-uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest75.2 PrefixationOrderLiterateSymmetryGovernmental RelevantProductiveBelievable VulnerableSaneRelated AlignedMatureDis

7、orderIlliterateAsymmetryNongovernmental IrrelevantUnproductiveUnbelievable InvulnerableInsaneUnrelatedNonalignedImmature85.2 Prefixation2) Reversative or privativede-defrost, deregulation, degeneration, deformed, denationalizeun-undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmaskdis-disconnect, dishearten, disinter

8、ested95.2 PrefixationCentralizePlaneInfectZip RegulatePossessPollute DecentralizeDeplaneDisinfect Unzip DeregulateDispossess Depollute 105.2 Prefixation3) Pejorative prefixesmis-misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice, misgiving mal-maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction, maldevelopmentps

9、eudo-pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic, pseudo-friend 115.2 Prefixation4) Prefixes of degree or sizehyper-hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautiousultra-ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservativemini-minibus, minicamera, miniskirtout-outdo, outgrown, o

10、utliveover-overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburdenunder-underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduatesuper-supermarket, superpower, superstarsub-subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom125.2 PrefixationComputerCriticalConsciousNaturalSensitiveSimpleNumberStatementcultureMinico

11、mputerUltracritic /hypercriticSubconsciousSupernaturalHypersensitive/ultrasensitiveOversimpleOutnumberUnderstatementSubculture135.2 Prefixation5) Prefixes of orientation and attitudeco-Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation counter-Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive, counterattack,

12、counterculture, countermeasure anti-anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial, anticancer, antibody pro-pro-American, pro-revolutionary, pro-Fascism , pro-student, proslavery 145.2 Prefixation6) Locative prefixesfore-forearm, foreleg, forename, forewordinter-international, intergov

13、ernmental, intertwine, interdisciplinary, intercollege trans-transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplanttele-telephone, telegram, telecommunication155.2 PrefixationViewConferenceContinentalGroundCastSpecificRacialShore InterviewteleconferenceIntercontinentalForegroundTelecast TranspacificTran

14、sracial Foreshore165.2 Prefixation7) Prefixes of time and orderex-ex-husband, ex-president, ex-colony, ex-convictfore-foresee, foretell, forefather, forewarnpre-premature, prewar, prehistoric, prepay, premaritalpost-post-election, postwar, postgraduate, postdoctoral175.2 Prefixation8) Number prefixe

15、suni-/mono-unilateral, unicell, unicircuit, unicolor, unicycle, unidimensional, uniform, unipolar, monoxide, monocrystal, monogamy, monologue bi-/di-bicycle, bilingual, bimonthly, dioxide, dialogue, dichotomy, disyllable tri-triangular, triatomic, trimonthly, trilateral, trilingualmulti-/poly-multip

16、urpose, multipolar, multiangular, multilingual, polyatomic, polycrystal, polygamy semi-semicircle, semiliterate, semivowel, semiannual, semicolony, semiautomatic185.2 PrefixationLingual Lateral Polar Dimensional Unilingual, bilingual, trilingual, multilingualUnilateral, bilateral, trilateral, multil

17、ateralUnipolar, bipolar, tripolar, multipolarUnidimensional, bidimensional, tridimensional (three-dimensional), multidimensional195.2 Prefixation9) Conversion prefixes a- aloud, asleep, aglow, awashbe-belittle, bestir, befriend, bewitchen-endanger, enforce, enable, embody, embitter, empower205.2 Pre

18、fixation10) Miscellaneous prefixesExtra-Extralinguistic, extraordinary, extraterrestrialNeo-Neo-classicism,neo-colonialism, neo-fascism, Neolithic Pan-Pan-Pacific, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism .215.3 Suffixation The definition of suffixationSuffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes

19、 to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem, suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class. However, they may also add attached meaning to the stem.22

20、5.3 SuffixationThe classification of suffixesSince suffixes mainly change the word class, we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into1) noun suffixes 2) adjective suffixes3) adverb suffixes4) verb suffixes235.3 Suffixation1) Noun suffixesNoun suffixes may be subdivided into the following fiv

21、e kinds.Denominal nouns (concrete or abstract)Deverbal nounsDe-adjectival nounsNoun and adjective suffixes 245.3 Suffixation 1) Noun suffixesDenominal nouns (concrete)-eer auctioneer, engineer, mountaineer, pamphleteer, profiteer, racketeer-erLondoner, teenager, villager-essactress, waitress, stewar

22、dess, hostess, lioness-letbooklet, leaflet, piglet, starlet255.3 Suffixation 1) Noun suffixesDenominal nouns (abstract)-age baggage, luggage, mileage, percentage-domfreedom, kingdom, stardom, officialdom -ery/-rydrudgery, slavery, nunnery, nursery, machinery-ismidealism, optimism, individualism, con

23、sumerism-shipdictatorship, scholarship, friendship, sportsmanship-ocrasyaristocracy, democracy, meritocracy-hoodboyhood, brotherhood, neighborhood, adulthood -fulhandful, mouthful, plateful, tubful265.3 Suffixation 1) Noun suffixesDeverbal nouns-ant contestant, inhabitant, assistant, informant-eeint

24、erviewee, addressee, appointee, nominee, employee-er/-ordriver, employer, interviewer, computer, silencer, accelerator, supervisor, actor, window-shopper-ationfoundation, exploration, nomination, starvation-ingbuilding, dwelling, earnings, savings, clothing, stuffing-alrefusal, revival, survival, ar

25、rival, dismissal-mentamazement, arrangement, movement, government-agebreakage, coverage, shrinkage, drainage275.3 Suffixation 1) Noun suffixesDe-adjectival nouns-itydiversity, equality, rapidity, verbosity, responsibility, actuality, regularity, popularity, respectability -nessaccurateness, falsenes

26、s, kindness, selfishness, happiness, largeness, frankness, unexpectedness, thickness, goodness 285.3 Suffixation 1) Noun suffixesNouns and adjective suffixes -ese Burmese, Chinese, Cantonese, officialese, journalese -(i)anDarwinian, republican, Elizabethan, Shakespearean, Indonesian, Russian-istcomm

27、unist, pianist, specialist, socialist295.3 Suffixation 2) Adjective SuffixesDenominal suffixes -eddogged, rugged, pointed, chocolate-flavored-fuldelightful, successful, faithful, meaningful-ishchildish, foolish, snobbish, Irish, Turkish-lesshomeless, hopeless, merciless, harmless-likechildlike, lady

28、like, statesmanlike-lyfriendly, cowardly, motherly, daily, weekly-y milky, sandy, hairy, meaty 305.3 Suffixation 2) Adjective SuffixesDenominal suffixes -ic (-atic)ethnic, economic, historic, problematic -ous (-ious, -eous)ambitious, desirous, marvelous, courageous, erroneous, courteous-al (-ial, -i

29、cal)accidental, professional, residential, musical, philosophical315.3 Suffixation 2) Adjective SuffixesDeverbal suffixes -able (-ible, -uble)debatable, drinkable, changeable, perishable, permissible, visible, dissoluble, soluble -ive (-ative, -sive)attractive, reflective, productive, negative, deco

30、rative, talkative, affirmative, expansive, explosive, decisive325.3 Suffixation 3) Adverb Suffixes-lysmoothly, personally, extremely, publicly, naturally-ward(s)downward, eastward, homeward, forward -wise clockwise, lengthwise, weatherwise, educationwise, taxwise, moneywise335.3 Suffixation 4) Verb

31、suffixes-ateOriginate, hyphenate-enDeepen, harden, strengthen, hasten-ifySolidify, modify, beautify, classify, identify-ize(-ise)Symbolize, computerize, legalize, publicize, specialize345.3 Suffixation FalseSterileIntenseFatHorrorMemoryApologyFalsifySterilizeIntensifyFattenHorrifyMemorizeApologize35

32、5.4 ConversionThe definition of conversionConversion is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation(零位派生).365.4 ConversionMajor types of conversionNoun-verb conversionVerb-noun conversio

33、nAdjective-noun conversion375.4 ConversionNoun-verb conversionHe elbowed his way through the crowd.Problems snowballed by the hour.The newspaper headlined his long record of accomplishments.Kissinger got the plans and helicoptered to Camp David. 385.4 ConversionAbuseAdviceHouseUseBeliefGriefShelfmou

34、thAbuseAdviseHouseUseBelieveGrieveShelveMouth Changes of pronunciation and spelling395.4 ConversionVerb-noun conversionHe was admitted to the university after a three-year wait.This little restaurant is quite a find.It is a good buy.He took a close look at the machine.doubt, smell, desire, want, att

35、empt, hit, reply, divide405.4 ConversionVerb-noun conversionPhrasal verb-noun conversionRight branchingLeft branchingBreak downBreakdownBreak outOutbreakPick upPick-upSpill overOverspillTake overTake-overStart upUpstartGet togetherGet-togetherPut inInputBreak throughBreakthrough Keep upupkeep415.4 C

36、onversionConflictAbstractContrastDecreaseDiscountExportRebel PermitProgressProtestTransferTransplant SurveyTormentShift of stress425.4 ConversionAdjective-noun conversionPartial conversionComplete conversion 435.4 ConversionAdjective-noun conversionPartial conversionDenoting a quality or a state com

37、mon to a group of person: the deaf, the blind, the poor, the woundedDenoting peoples of a nation (ending in sh, -se, -ch): the English, the Chinese, the Danish, the ScotchDenoting a quality in the abstract: a strong dislike for the sentimental, to distinguish the false and the true, from the sublime

38、 to the ridiculousDenoting a single person (converted from participles): the accused, the deceased, the deserted, the condemned 445.4 ConversionAdjective-noun conversionComplete conversionA native, two natives, a returned nativeHe is a natural for the job.Tom is one of our regulars, he comes in for

39、a drink about this time every night.To them she is not a brusque crazy, but appropriately passionate.They are the creatives in the advertising department.455.5 CompoundingThe definition of compoundingComposition or compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to fo

40、rm a new unit, a compound word. It is a common device which has been productive at every period of the English language. Today the largest number of new words are formed by compounding. 465.5 CompoundingForms of compoundsSolid: bedtime, honeymoonHyphenated: above-mentioned, town-planningOpen: readin

41、g material, hot line475.5 CompoundingTypes of compoundsNoun compoundsAdjective compoundsVerb compounds 485.5 CompoundingNoun compoundsHeadache, housekeeping, hot line, swimming pool, raindrop, breakdown, biological clock, identity crisis495.5 CompoundingAdjective compoundsWeather-beaten rocks, peace

42、loving people, everlasting friendship, a difficult-to-operate machine, a made-up story, an on the spot inspection, taxfree products, fire-proof dress505.5 CompoundingVerb compoundsFormed by back-formationhouse-keep from housekeeper windowshop from window-shopping mass produce from mass production he

43、n-peck from hen-pecked spoon-feed from spoon-fed.515.5 CompoundingVerb compoundsFormed by conversionto blue-print, to cold-shoulder, to outline, to honeymoon, to snowball, to chain-smoke, to sweet-talk, to job-hop.52Chapter 6 Word-Formation II: The Minor Processes6.1 Blending6.2 Backformation6.3 Sho

44、rtening6.4 Analogy536.1 BlendingThe definition of blendingBlending（拼缀法）is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining parts of two words. The result of such a process is called a blend or telescopic word or portmanteau word. Blending is thus a process of both compounding a

45、nd abbreviation. Structurally blends may be divided into four types (see 46).546.1 BlendingExamplesnewscast (newsbroadcast) brunch (breakfastlunch) smog (smokefog) talkathon (talkmarathon) slimnastics (slimgymnastics) videophone ( video telephone)556.1 Blendingsci-fihi-fiworkaholicstagflationUnicoms

46、itcommoteldawksciencefiction highfidelity workalcoholic stagnationinflation United Communicationssituationcomedymotorhoteldovehawk566.2 BackformationThe definition of backformationBack-formation（逆成法） is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed suffix. It i

47、s also known as a reverse derivation. 576.2 BackformationExamplesedit from editorautomate from automationenthuse from enthusiasmgloom from gloomydonate from donationbrainwash from brainwashingsleep-walk from sleep-walking586.3 ShorteningTypes of shortening or abbreviation（缩略法）1) clipped words（剪切词）:

48、those created by clipping part of the word (usually a noun), leaving only a piece of the old word. The clipped form is normally regarded as informal.596.3 ShorteningTypes of shortening or abbreviation（缩略法）2) initialisms（首字母连写词）: a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper

49、 name, a technical term, or a phrase; an initialism is pronounced letter by letter.606.3 ShorteningTypes of shortening or abbreviation（缩略法）3) acronyms（首字母拼音词）: words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as word

50、s rather than as sequences of letters.616.3 Shortening1) Clipped wordsad=advertisementexpo=expositionphone=telephonepro=professionalmemo=memorandumtec=detectiveheli or copter=helicoptercomfy=comfortable626.3 Shorteninggymnasium dormitory handkerchief gasoline kilogram influenza business parachute re

51、frigerator taxicab gymdormhankyGaskiloflubizchutefridgetaxi or cabGive clippings for the following words636.3 Shortening2) InitialismsIOC=International Olympic CommitteeBBC=British Broadcasting CorporationISBN=International Standard Book NumberCAD=computer assisted designcm=centimeterTB=tuberculosis

52、646.3 ShorteningCPUDIYCEOITAISOSIDDGMTVIPP.S.a.m. p.m.central processing unitDo it yourselfChief Executive OfficerInformation technologyartificial intelligenceSave our shipinternational direct dialGreenwich Mean Timevery important personpostscriptante meridiempost meridiemWrite out in full the follo

53、wing initialisms656.3 Shortening3) AcronymsBasic=Beginners All-purpose Symbolic InstructionTEFL=teaching English as a foreign languageUNESCO=the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganizationSars=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome666.3 ShorteningTofelROMNATOFIFAAidsradar Test of Eng

54、lish as a foreign languageread only memoryThe North Atlantic Treaty organizationFederation Internationale de FootballAcquired Immune Deficiency syndromeRadio detecting and ranging Write out in full the following acronyms676.4 AnalogyThe definition of analogy（类比）The process by which words or phrases

55、are created or re-formed according to the existing patterns in the language686.4 AnalogyExamplesMarathontelethon, talkathonblue-collar workerswhite-collar workers, gray-collar workers, pink-collar workers, gold-collar workersenvironmental pollutionvisual or eye pollution, noise pollution, cultural p

56、ollution, graffiti pollutionFirst FamilyFirst Lady, First Dog Landscapemoonscape, marscapeBirds eyefish-eye, worms-eye, cats-eye69Chapter 7 Motivation7.1 Conventionality and Motivation7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation7.3 Morphological motivation7.4 Semantic motivation7.5 Logical motivation7.6 Motivation a

57、nd Culture707.1 Conventionality and MotivationMeaning (Concept)WordTriangle of significance（词义三角）FormReferent.717.1 Conventionality and MotivationThe debate over the connection between sound and meaningThe naturalists maintain there is a natural/intrinsic connection between sound and meaning. The Co

58、nventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. The meaning of a word is a kind of linguistic social contract. 727.1 Conventionality and MotivationConventionality（约定俗成） Whats in a name? That we call a rose By any other name would s

59、mell as sweet. Shakespeare: Romeo and JulietWords have no meaning, people have meaning for them. Eric Partridge737.1 Conventionality and MotivationConventionality树Chinese木JapanesearbreFrenchbaunGermany747.1 Conventionality and MotivationMotivation（理据）Motivation deals with the connection between name

60、 (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning.757.1 Conventionality and MotivationNon-motivated and motivatedFrom the point of view of motivation, the great majority of English words are nonmotivated, since they are conventional, arbitrary