世界经济千年史前两章(doc 25)

1、世界经济千年史史2004年第554期（总第第470期）2004年9月月28日荷兰兰格罗宁根大大学教授、世世界经济千年年史作者MMaddisson先生在在中国经济研研究中心万众众楼做了题为为“世界经济千千年史”的讲座，集集中讨论了宏宏观经济计量量历史研究的的发展进程。下下面是他报告告的主要内容容。宏观经济计量历历史的发展经经历了三个历历史阶段：220世纪500年代以来的的“收入和财富富国际研究协协会时期”即IARIIW时期（IInternnationnal Asssociaation for RResearrch inn Incoome annd Weaalth）；18201950年年的库兹涅斯

2、斯研究为代表表的时期或“Kuzneetsiann时期”；1500018200年商人资本本主义年代。550年代以来来，宏观计量量的主要目的的是提供可能能的政策选择择以改善国家家的增长表现现以及进行国国家间差异分分析。我们现现在有50年年代以来世界界大部分国家家的增长和收收入的官方估估计。而在KKuznettsian时时代，数量经经济史学家在在测量世界经经济增长和量量化增长因素素方面取得了了巨大进展。虽虽然仍有一些些领域需要改改进，但对这这个时期经济济发展大致轮轮廓没有实质质争议。相反反，关于商人人资本主义年年代的世界经经济的描述则则存在很大分分歧，作为代代表的是亚当当、斯密的乐乐观看法和马马尔萨

3、斯的悲悲观论。20世纪50年年代以来的IIARIW时时代虽然50年代以以来标准国民民经济核算体体系逐渐被采采用，但是现现存估计中仍仍有很多问题题。使用苏联联MPS体系系（mateerial produuctionn systtem）的国国家增长被高高估，需要做做大量调整。非非洲许多新生生国家缺少必必要的技术和和资金进行国国民收入增长长核算，虽然然国际组织工工作在一定程程度上弥补了了这种不足，但但是非洲数据据也需要做大大量调整。还还有19955年以来一些些高收入国家家开始引入享享乐指数（hhedoniic inddex）来反反映产品质量量的改善，但但是这么做并并没有充分的的根据并且会会高估经济增

4、增长，比如美美国用新的计计量技术重新新进行1922919550年国民经经济核算，结结果使国内生生产总值(GGDP)的增增长率由2.6%增加到到3.5%。最最后关于教育育和知识的计计量也还没有有成熟理论。另一问题是购买买力平价转换换与国家间GGDP水平比比较。政府统统计官员会提提供真实价格格计算的总产产出和总支出出数据，经济济学家、新闻闻记者和官员员们都将其作作为经济增长长和波动的主主要指标。购购买力平价方方法与用真实实价格计量的的目的是一样样的，即修正正价格差异使使真实产出和和支出水平的的有效比较成成为可能。以以汇率转换的的GDP与以以购买力平价价转换的GDDP区别非常常大。以购买买力平价计算

5、算的发展中国国家的GDPP要大大高于于以汇率转换换的GDP，差差距可能达到到3-5倍。同同时发达国家家GDP以汇汇率计算则容容易被高估。更更为明显的一一个例子是11950年中中国和印度以以汇率计算人人均GDP分分别是$855和$1755（19900年价格），这这两个数据低低得让人难以以置信。那么么为何汇率转转换还如此经经常的被使用用呢？一方面面出于无知和和支持自己观观点的需要，另另一方面许多多发展国家不不愿意接受购购买力平价方方法，因为担担心这会不利利于他们申请请世行的优惠惠贷款和资助助。这导致了了经济间比较较分析的明显显错误，媒体体经常称日本本是世界第二二大经济虽然然其GDP还还不到中国的的

6、60，英英国的政客们们也始终相信信英国的经济济规模比中国国大。182019950年的KKuznettsian时时代Simon KKuznetts教授对现现代经济增长长的研究成果果，使可以数数量化研究的的时间界限从从20世纪550年代推进进到19世纪纪20年代。关关于这段时期期我们现有的的几个结论是是：加速的经经济增长始于于1820年年而非Kuzznets认认为的17660年；经济济学家对西欧欧各国研究表表明西欧的崛崛起是同时而而非交错发生生的；这段时时期快速发展展加大了西方方与其他国家家的差距；KKuznetts研究推翻翻了Konddratieeff长期循循环的说法和和Schummpeterr

7、循环发展论论点。事实上上1820年年以来的技术术变革不是浪浪潮式的而是是连续推进的的，目前有足足够证据把1182022001这段段时间划分为为5个不同的的发展阶段。其其中1950019733年是一个无无可比拟的繁繁荣的黄金时时代，这个时时期世界GDDP年均增长长5，世界界贸易年均增增长8，人人均收入有明明显趋同趋势势，大部分地地区经济增长长都快于美国国。19733年以后，世世界经济增长长明显下降，各各地区的差异异加大，但是是基于世界的的角度，最近近这个阶段仍仍然是增长表表现名列第二二的阶段。区区分领导国家家和跟随国家家对于研究技技术的动态传传播和赶超过过程是非常重重要的，“领导”国家指那些些处

8、于技术前前沿的国家，而而“跟随”国家指劳动动生产率较低低的国家。11500年以以来共有4个个领导国家，116世纪的意意大利，166世纪至拿破破仑战争时期期的荷兰，此此后的英国和和1890年年后的美国。对1820年以以来英国、美美国和日本的的增长分析，最最早考虑的是是劳动力投入入和生产率，战战后资本成了了一个非常重重要的增长因因素，之后又又有观点将“人力资本”看作生产要要素。Dennison扩扩展增长分析析方法指出11820年以以来英国、美美国和日本经经济增长表现现出以下一些些显著特点：物质资本大大量增长，非非居住建筑和和机器设备增增加非常明显显，伴随在机机器设备中加加速的技术进进步。教育水水平

9、大大提高高，英国提高高了8倍，美美国和日本111倍。人均均劳动投入在在英国和日本本下降了400，在美国国下降了200。对外贸贸易占GDPP的比重在英英国由3增增至25，日日本0.2至13，美美国2至110。自然然资源的缺乏乏对增长并不不构成限制，人人均土地在美美国下降了114倍，英国国和日本下降降了4倍。能能源的投入增增长比较温和和，美国人均均增长了3倍倍，英国6倍倍，日本8倍倍。150018820年的商商人资本主义义年代关于商人资本主主义年代（1150011820）经经济表现，在在18世纪末末就已经存在在两种不同的的解释。亚当当、斯密乐观观地认为，美美洲大陆和新新航线的发现现给大型经济济，国

10、际贸易易和专业化的的发展创造了了新的机会，虽虽然因为对贸贸易的共同限限制，这些机机会不能被充充分利用。马马尔萨斯则悲悲观论则认为为，经济表现现取决于人口口增长和固定定的土地供给给间的平衡，技技术进步、资资本形成和国国际贸易专业业化的因素被被忽略，因此此只有通过灾灾难（战争、饥饥荒、疾病）才才能实现平衡衡。这两种观观点对立一直直存在。此外外悲观的看法法有了一些其其他的支持，LLeRoy Ladurrie认为法法国1300017200年的经济是是停滞的，真真实工资论者者则更加悲观观他们有人认认为英国18820年的生生活水平比11500年下下降了44等等。关于15001820不不同国家和地地区的经济

11、表表现，Kuzznets在在1965年年提出了关于于西欧人口率率和人均GDDP增长的一一个非常有影影响的假说，认认为西欧发达达国家1500017550年可能的的（并且或许许是最大的）长长期人均产出出年均增长率率为0.2%。对上述假假说验证表明明，西欧1550018820年人均均年增长率为为0.14，显著小于于Kuzneets估计，美美洲国家整体体而言人均GGDP增长快快于西欧，非非洲南部和北北部的发展差差异比较明显显，亚洲国家家整体而言收收入水平是停停滞的，日本本的人均表现现要好于中国国和印度，但但是非常明显显中国这个时时期有着广泛泛的增长，它它在人口大量量增长的情况况下生活水平平并没有下降降

12、并且GDPP的增长与西西欧一样显著著。在分析商人资本本主义时代的的增长时，增增长分析的方方法就不再适适用了。研究究表明，人均均劳动投入、资资本和人力资资本、知识在在这个时期都都有增加，但但是非常明显显的是全球化化在这个时期期起到了比以以往更加重要要的作用，相相对来说全球球化在这段时时期的作用比比在20世纪纪还要重要。西西方造船业和和航海的巨大大发展，使世世界贸易在1150011820年增增长了20倍倍。欧洲国家家还从殖民地地，非洲奴隶隶贸易中获取取了很多利益益。美洲国家家则经历了生生态、技术和和人口的转型型。引进新的的农作物提高高了粮食的产产量；马和其其他牲畜的引引入则改善了了交通条件；欧洲各

13、种技技术的引入也也有助于经济济的发展；欧欧洲疾病使22/3土著居居民死亡，加加上欧洲人和和非洲奴隶大大量涌入，改改变了美洲的的人口结构。非非洲和亚洲国国家也引入了了美洲农作物物。此外还存存在大陆间的的技术传递，欧欧洲向美洲输输出武器、工工具、车辆、船船和造船技术术、印刷、文文字、教育和和政治经济机机构，欧洲采采矿技术在美美洲应用生产产出大量金银银供欧洲与亚亚洲进行贸易易，同时期欧欧洲从亚洲引引入了纺织和和陶瓷技术。与亚当斯密和马马尔萨斯关于于商人资本主主义的对立解解释相对应，关关于现代化的的根源有非常常不同的看法法。有一个学学派认为现代代经济增长源源于工业革命命，而之前则则是几个世纪纪的马尔萨

14、斯斯停滞。很多多人支持这个个观点，但是是这些观点在在根本上是错错误的。事实实上向现代资资本主义过渡渡经历了长时时间的准备。首首先是教育和和知识的传播播由于印刷术术的发明和推推广而变革；其次造船业业和航海业到到1820年年也发生了变变革，船只的的设计、装备备和天文知识识都大大改善善，有了精确确的航海指导导等等。这些些进展都是科科研努力的结结果。无疑，欧欧洲的这些发发展是19和和20世纪经经济更快发展展的前奏，欧欧洲的现代化化不是一蹴而而就的。（任丽达、卢锋锋整理） - 发贴时间： 2004-10-177 2:288:56 218.31.*.* erraantkinng 等级：贫农农财产：经验：魅

15、力： 注册：20003-9-7 文章：555 鉴定：保密密 - Measuriing annd Intterpreeting Worldd Econnomic Perfoormancce 15000-20001*Angus MMaddissonThis iss a suuitablle occcasionn for surveeying the pprogreess acchieveed, inn the past 60 yeears, in quuantiffying worldd econnomic devellopmennt, annd anaalysinng thee caussal

16、innfluennces wwhich deterrmine the ppace aand paatternn of ggrowthh. Thiis wass a maajor oobjecttive oof thee founnding fatheers off the Interrnatioonal AAssociiationn for Reseaarch iin Inccome aand Weealth (IARIIW). TThe innitiattive ffor crreatinng an assocciatioon inccludinng botth acaademiccs an

17、dd offiicial statiisticiians ccame ffrom SSimon Kuzneets (11901-885), tthe piioneerr of qquantiitativve ecoonomicc histtory. Miltoon Gillbert (19099-79) and RRicharrd Stoone (11913-11991) were strattegic partnners wwith eenormoous innternaationaal levveragee in ccreatiing annd difffusinng staandardd

18、 proccedurees forr consstructtion oof commparabble naationaal acccountss by oofficiial sttatisttical officces.This paaper aanalysses thhe devvelopmment oof maccro-meeasureement in thhree eepochss:a) for the IIARIW epochh, bacck to 1950, the main purpoose haas beeen to illumminatee poliicy opptionss

19、to iimprovve groowth pperforrmancee at tthe naationaal levvel annd to analyyse innter-ccountrry divvergennce inn reall incoome leevels to heelp deevise policcies ffor caatch-uup. Wee now have officcial eestimaates oof groowth aand leevels for tthe vaast buulk off the worldd econnomy ffrom 11950 oonw

20、ardds.b) For the KKuznettsian epochh of “mmodernn econnomic growtth” baack too 18200, quaantitaative econoomic hhistorrians have made greatt proggress in meeasuriing woorld eeconommic grrowth and iin quaantifyying tthe foorces deterrmininng perrformaance. Theree is sscope for ffurtheer ressearchh to

21、 ffill ggaps aand crrosschheck eexistiing esstimattes, bbut thhe brooad coontourrs of devellopmennt in this periood aree not underr seriious cchalleenge.c) for the “mmerchaant caapitallist” epochh, 15000-18220, thhere aare shharplyy diveergentt inteerprettationns aboout woorld, and pparticcularlly E

22、urropeann perfformannce. TThe diichotoomy beetweenn posiitive and nnegatiive asssessmments startted wiith Addam Smmith aand Maalthuss at tthe ennd of the 118th ccenturry. Inn my vview, the eevidennce foor thee Maltthusiaan vieew is shodddy.Historiians uusuallly staart att the beginnning of thheir cc

23、hronoology. Quanntitattive eeconommic hiistoriians hhave tto worrk bacckwardds froom thee pressent, proceeedingg fromm whatt is kknown and aacceptted, tto earrlier epochhs wheere evvidencce is weakeer andd therre is greatter reeliancce on cluess and conjeecturee. *This iis thee firsst Rugggles Lectu

24、ure, ddeliveered aat thee 28thh IARIIW Genneral Confeerencee, Corrk, Irelland AAugustt 20044I(i) Staandarddised Estimmates of GDDP Groowth ffor 19950 onnwardssThe staandarddised accouunts pprovidde a ccohereent maacroecconomiic fraameworrk covveringg the wholee econnomy, crossscheckked inn threee wa

25、yys. Frrom thhe inccome sside, they are tthe tootal oof wagges, rrents and pprofitts. Onn the demannd sidde, thhey arre thee sum of fiinal eexpendditurees by consuumers, inveestorss and goverrnmentt. Froom thee prodductioon sidde, thhe summ of vvalue addedd in ddifferrent ssectorrs-agrricultture, in

26、dusstry aand seervicees, neet of dupliicatioon.Milton Gilbeert haad beeen ressponsiible ffor thhe offficiall US acccountss duriing thhe warr and from 1950 to 19961 waas heaad of statiisticss and natioonal aaccounnts inn OEECC. Thee Marsshall Plan requiired ccriterria foor aidd alloocatioon, annd NAT

27、TO neeeded tthem ffor itts burrden-ssharinng exeercisees. Giilbertt met thesee requuiremeents bby pusshing officcial sstatissticall offiices oof thee 16 OOEEC mmemberr counntriess to aadopt the sstandaardiseed sysstem oof acccountss desiigned by Riichardd Stonne. Stone sset upp a prrogrammme inn Cam

28、bbridgee to ttrain officcial EEuropeean sttatistticianns to impleement the sstandaardiseed sysstem. A sett of nnationnal haandboooks waas preeparedd to eexplaiin thee probblems of addjustmment tto thee stanndardiised ssystemm, andd a fiirst ccomparrativee set of acccountts forr the 16 coountriies fo

29、or 19338 andd 19477-52 wwas puublishhed byy OEECC in 11954, with extennsive notess expllaininng thee adjuustmennts whhich hhad beeen maade too achiieve ccomparrabiliity.In 19533, Stoone beecame chairrman oof a UUnitedd Natiions ccommisssion whichh estaablishhed a systeem of accouunts ffor woorldwiid

30、e appplicaation. The UN coould nnot exxert aas mucch levveragee on iits meember counttries to coonformm as wwas poossiblle in OEEC. The commuunist counttries used the SSoviett SMS (systtem off mateerial accouunts) whichh had a narrrowerr defiinitioon of produuctivee actiivity (exclludingg manyy serv

31、vice aactiviities), invvolvedd seriious ddoublee counnting (meassuringg grosss outtput wwithouut dedductinng intter-seector transsfers of innputs) and exagggerateed ecoonomicc growwth. TThe prrice ssystemm and tax-sstructtures were diffeerent from thosee in ccapitaalist counttries, and measuuremennt

32、 connventiions ggave iincenttives to exxaggerrate qqualitty chaange wwhen nnew prroductts werre inttroducced. AAbram Bergsson (11914-22003) pioneeered proceeduress for re-esstimattion oof Sovviet GGDP onn a baasis ccorresspondiing appproxiimatelly to Westeern cooncepttions in cooveragge, wiith ellim

33、inaation of doouble-countting, and rrepriccing oon an “adjuusted factoor cosst” baasis wwith iimputaation for ccapitaal cossts whhich wwere nnot coonsideered iin Sovviet aaccounnting. Thesse corrrectiive prroceduures wwere aapplieed to Sovieet staatistiics byy a teeam off CIA Sovieetologgists in Waa

34、shinggton. In Neew Yorrk, Thhad Allton aand hiis collleaguues diid thee samee for Bulgaaria, Czechhoslovvakia, Eastt Germmany, Polannd, Romaania aand Yuugoslaavia. This work was ffinancced foor inttelliggence purpooses, but wwas puubliclly avaailablle in annuaal repports to thhe US Congrress (see MM

35、addisson 19998b).In the 1990ss mostt of tthese counttries adoptted thhe staandarddised SNA ssystemm in pprinciiple, but iimplemmentattion wwas coompliccated by thhe masssive changge in ownerrship, in tthe leevel aand sttructuure off pricces, aallocaation of reesourcces beetweenn conssumptiion annd i

36、nvvestmeent, aand sttatisttical reporrting proceeduress. It will take some yearss befoore thhese pprobleems caan be fullyy resoolved. The IMF ccontinnues tto usee exagggeratted meeasurees of GDP ggrowthh for thesee counntriess. As a ressult, it shhows aa growwth inn worlld GDPP averragingg 3.9 perce

37、ent a year for 11970-2200, ccomparred wiith myy estiimate of 3.3 perrcent. For Chinaa it sshows growtth aveeraginng 8.55 per cent a yeaar, whhereass my aadjustted meeasuree showws a ggrowthh ratee of 66.5 peer cennt (seee Madddisonn, 20003, p. 231).Anotherr areaa of wweakneess iss Afriica, wwhere th

38、eree was and sstill is a greatt shorrtage of skkills and mmoney for ssuch wwork iin a llarge numbeer of newlyy creaated ccountrries. The ggap inn estiimatess of GGDP grrowth was ffilledd in ssubstaantiall degrree byy the OECD Devellopmennt Cenntre wwhich compiiled aannuall estiimatess of rreal GGDP

39、grrowth 1950-90 foor 51 Africcan coountriies. TThe Ceentre beneffited from the eexperttise oof Derrek Bllades, who had bbeen cchief statiisticiian inn Malaawi foor eigght yeears, and bby Davvid Roobertss who had ssimilaar expperiennce inn Gambbia. A thirdd probblem iin thee asseessmennt of GDP ggrow

40、thh perfformannce inn the higheer inccome ccountrries dderivees froom reccent cchangees in measuuremennt connventiions ffrom 11995 oonwardds, innvolviing addoptioon of hedonnic inndexess to aadjustt for assummed chhangess in qqualitty of produuct, uuse off chaiin inddices, and treattment of coonsume

41、er sofftwaree as iinvesttment. Hedonicc indiices aare peerfecttly reespecttable in smmall ddoses, but one ccan bee skeppticall abouut thee wideespreaad asssumptiion thhat quualityy channges hhave bbeen sso larrge annd monnotoniicallyy posiitive. In tthe USSA, whhere tthe swwitch to heedoniccs wass m

42、ostt signnificaant, ttheir net iimpactt was to raaise tthe meeasureed ratte of growtth to a sommewhatt greaater ddegreee thann in WWesterrn Eurrope aand Jaapan. US offficiall estiimatess go bback tto 19229, annd thee channges iin meaasuremment ttechniique hhad thheir bbiggesst imppact ffor 19929-500

43、, raiising the GGDP grrowth rate for tthat pperiodd fromm 2.6 perceent a year to 3.5. Thhere wwas noo counnterpaart too thiss longg retrrospecctive readjjustmeent inn otheer couuntriees, annd I hhave ccontinnued tto usee the earliier USS offiicial measuure foor 19229-50 (for reasoons exxplainned inn

44、 Madddison, 20011, p. 138, and MMaddisson, 22003, pp.799-80). Moree thann 40 yyears ago, Miltoon Gillbert warneed thaat succh adjjustmeents ccould open Pandooras box: “In tthe ennd, thhey woould mmake iit imppossibble too consstructt meassures of ouutput and pprice changges thhat arre useeful tto th

45、ee studdy of econoomic ggrowthh” (Giilbertt, 19661, p. 287). Thee dangger whhich aarisess fromm an ooverdoose off hedoonics is diiscusssed inn Appeendix 3.Ed Deniison (1915-1992) exprressedd oppoositioon to changges inn natiional accouuntingg whicch treeat acccretiions oof knoowledgge as invesstment

46、t. He consiideredd thiss a “mmisclaassifiicatioon” whhich mmade “ggrowthh anallysis chaottic” (see DDenisoon, 19989, pp. 10). A mmajor justiificattion ffor hiis commplainnt wass thatt his growtth acccountss inclluded “humaan cappital”, i.e. incrrementts in the qqualitty of the llabourr forcce duee t

47、o iincreaases iin thee leveel of educaation.In factt, thee onlyy formm of kknowleedge wwhich is noow treeated as innvestmment iis commputerr softtware. It iis oddd to ttreat this rapiddly deepreciiatingg knowwledgee as iinvesttment, whillst iggnorinng thee moree duraable iinflueence oof boooks annd

48、eduucatioon.(ii) Puurchassing PPower Conveerterss for Crosss-counntry CComparrison of GDDP Levvels Once sttandarrdisedd accoounts of reeal GDDP groowth iin nattionall currrenciees hadd beenn estaablishhed foor alll OEECC counntriess, thee nextt stepp to ffaciliitate interr-counntry ccomparrison and

49、mmulti-counttry agggregaation was tthe deeveloppment of puurchassing ppower paritty connverteers (PPPPs) to meeasuree reall GDP levells, raather than relyiing onn exchhange rate compaarisonn. Thee firsst OEEEC stuudy, cco-autthoredd by MMiltonn Gilbbert aand Irrving Kraviis (19916-922). apppeareed i

50、n 1954, a seecond in 19958. TThey ccomparred reeal exxpendiiture levells in 8 OEEEC couuntriees. A thirdd voluume byy Paigge andd Bombbach (1959) comppared real outpuut levvels iin thee UK andd USA. KKraviss and his ccolleaagues, Alann Hestton annd Robbert SSummerrs impprovedd the methoodologgy of P

51、PP eestimaation in thheir IICP prrojectt at tthe Unniverssity oof Pennnsylvvania from 1968 onwarrds.The OEEEC stuudies were binarry commparissons bbetweeen paiirs off counntriess. Thee threee opttions were i) a Paascche PPPP, wiith “oown-coountryy” quaantityy weigghts; ii) aa Lasppeyress PPP with th

52、e qquantiity weeightss of tthe nuumeraiire coountryy-the Uniteed Staates; iii) a commpromiise geeometrric (FFisherr) aveerage of thhe firrst twwo meaasuress. Thee corrresponnding measuures oof reaal exppenditture wwere: i) Laaspeyrres coompariisons of GDDP levvels bbased on thhe priices (unit valuee

53、s) off the numerraire counttry; iii) Paaaschee leveel commparissons bbased on “oown-coountryy” pricces (uunit vvaluess); iiii) a Fisheer geoometriic aveerage of thhe twoo meassures. Binaary coompariisons, e.g. Germmany/UUSA annd UK/USA, couldd thenn be llinkedd withh the USA ass the star counttry. S

54、Such sstar ccomparrisonss coulld proovide a prooxy Geermanyy/UK ccomparrison, but it waas nott “traansitiive” (i.e. the rresultt woulld nott be iidentiical tto thaat derrived from a dirrect GGermanny/UK compaarisonn). Thhis waas nott a grreat ddrawbaack foor OEEEC couuntriees wheere thhe intter-coou

55、ntryy deviiationn in pperforrmancee leveels waas nott too wide. But Kraviis, Heeston and SSummerrs werre enggaged in coompariisons over a mucch widder raange oof perr capiita inncome. Theyy therreforee adoppted tthe Geeary-KKhamiss methhod, iinventted byy Roy Gearyy (18996-19883) annd Sallem Khhamis

56、, whicch mulltilatteraliised tthe reesultss, proovidedd trannsitivvity aand otther ddesiraable pproperrties. Theyy usedd it iin connjuncttion wwith tthe coommodiity prroductt dummmy metthod (CPD), inveented by Roobert Summeers, ffor fiillingg holees in the bbasic datasset. TTheir masteerpiecce wass

57、theiir thiird sttudy, the 11982 vvolumee Worlld Prooduct and IIncomee, whiich coontainned esstimattes foor 34 counttries (in AAfricaa, thee Amerricas, Asiaa and Europpe) inn 19755 pricces annd intternattionall Gearry-Khaamis ddollarrs. Thhese ccountrries aaccounnted ffor 644 per cent of woorld GGDP

58、inn 20011.Table 11 Natuure off PPP Conveerterss to EEstimaate GDDP Levvels iin thee Bencchmarkk Yearr 19900(billioon 19990 Geaary-Khhamis dollaars annd nummber oof couuntriees)Europe & Lattin Assia Affrica WorlddW. Offsshootss Amerrica ICP 15,273 (28) 22,131 (18) 8,0177 (24) 0 (00) 25,421 (70)PWT 59

59、 (3) 771 (144) 5244 (16) 891 (51) 1,5166 (84)Proxiess 16 (10) 338 (155) 87 (17) 14 (66) 1555 (48)Total 115,3499 (41) 2,2440 (477) 8,6628 (557) 9005 (577) 27,122(2202)Source: Madddison (20033), p. 230The UN Statiisticaal Offfice eextendded thhe ICPP workk and had ccovereed 84 counttries by 19985. UUN

60、SO tthen ddroppeed thiis enddeavouur, thhough some of thhe reggionall UN bbodiess conttinuedd withh it. The OOECD rrecommmencedd its compaarisonns on a reggular basiss in 11982. Its llatestt workk coveered tthe 288 OECDD counntriess and 20 otthers (in EEasterrn Eurrope, the 115 succcessoor staates o