工程造价专业外文文献翻译中英文对照

1、重庆高校毕业设计外文文献及译文重庆高校毕业设计外文文献及译文 PAGE PAGE 11外文文献:Project Cost Control： The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of cost controlhow it is setup and appliedSo we decided to write upadescription ofhow it works. Project cost

2、control is not that difficult to follow in theory。First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then， as work progresses, you monitor thework, analyzethe findings， forecast the end results and compare those with the referencebaselines。 If the end resultsare not satisfactory then you make adjustm

3、ents as necessary to the work in progress， and repeat the cycleat suitable intervals 。 If the end results get really out ofline with the baseline plan, you may have tochange the plan. More likely，there will be（or havebeen）scope changes that change the referencebaselines which means that every time t

4、hathappens you have to change the baseline plan anyway。But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice， as is evidenced by thenumberofprojectsthatfailto containcosts.Italso involvesasignificantamount ofwork，as weshall see, and we might aswell start at the beginning. So let us foll

5、ow the thread of project costcontrol through the entire projectlife span.And， while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places forseveral significantdocuments。 These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital）PackagesandtheWorkBreakdownStructure,theProjectCh

6、arter (or Brief), the Project Budget orCost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All ofthese contribute to the organizations ability toeffectively control project costs.FootnoteIamindebtedto myfriendQuentinFleming, theguruofEarned Value ， forchecking andcorrecting mywork on this topic。TheBusine

7、ss Case and Application for （execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive managementresponsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. Thismeans that they exercise their responsibilities at the

8、 key decision pointsbetweenthemajorphases。 Theymust also recognize the importance of project risk managementfor identifying and planning to head offat least the most obvious potential risk events.IntheprojectsConceptPhaseEvery project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is u

9、sually someone ofimportance or influence， if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes theprojectssponsor。 thesuitabilityof thepotential project，most organizations call for the preparationofa ”Business Case” and its Order of Magnitude” cost to justify the value of the project so that

10、itcan be compared with all the other competing projects。 This effort is conducted in theConceptPhaseoftheprojectandisdoneasapartoftheorganizationsmanagementoftheentireprojectportfolio.The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporatemanagement overhead, but it may b

11、e carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventualproject. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problemis, howdo you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward？IftheBusinesscasehassufficientmerit，approvalwillbegiventoproceedtoaDevelopm

12、entandDefinition phase.IntheprojectsDevelopmentorDefinitionPhaseThe objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the workinvolved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for theactualexecution of the project。 aformalized setting，espec

13、ially where big projects are involved, this application for fundingisoften referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital AppropriationRequest (CAR).Thisrequiresthecollectionofmoredetailedrequirementsanddatatoestablishwhatworkneedsto be done to produce the required product o

14、r ”deliverable”. From this information， a plan isprepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in therequest.Inalessformalized setting，everyone just triesto muddle through.WorkPackagesandtheWBSThe Project Management Plan， Project Brief or Project Charter

15、If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembledintoWorkPackages（WPs)andpresentedintheformofaWorkBreakdownStructure(WBS)。Each WP involves a set of activities, the ”work” that is planned and scheduled as a part of Plan. Note， however, that the planning

16、 will still be at a relatively highlevel，and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the goahead.This Project Management Plan ， by the way ， should become the ”bible” for the execution phaseoftheprojectandissometimesreferredtoasthe”ProjectBrieforthe”ProjectC

17、harter”。The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs areaggregatedto determine the estimated cost of the WP。 This approach is known as ”detailedestimating or”bottom up estimating”. There are other approaches to estimating that well come toin a minute。Eitherway

18、， the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project。Note： that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise。 This shouldexaminetheprojectsassumptionsandenvironmentalconditionstoidentifyanyweaknesses intheplan thus far,and identify those potential risk events

19、that warrant attention for mitigation. This ofspecific contingency planningand/or the setting aside of prudent fundingreserves。RequestforcapitalConverting the estimate， an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at acapital request some conversion is necessary，f

20、or example，by adding prudent allowances suchasoverheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves tocoverunknowns and possible scope changes。In addition， it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accountingformatthatsatisfiesthecorporate

21、orsponsorsformatforpurposesofcomparisonwithoth erprojectsandconsequent funding approval.In practice all the data for the type of bottom up” approach just described may not beavailable。Inthiscasealternativeestimatingapproachesareadoptedthatprovidevariousdegreesofreliabilityina”top downfashion。 Forexa

22、mple:OrderofMagnitudeestimatea”ballpark”， usuallyreservedforconceptphase onlyAnalogous estimate an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical dataWhicheverapproachisadopted， hopefullythe sum thus arrived at will be appr

23、oved inandproves to be satisfactory！ This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the project Note： Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will helpeveryoneto”sharpentheirpencilsandworksmarterforthebenefitoftheorganization.This is amistaken belief becau

24、se management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty toresult in”cornercutting withanadverseeffectonproductquality,orreducedproductscopeorfunctionalityThis often leads toa game in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust themdownwards. But to is also well aware that if

25、money is over allocatedit will getspent anyway.Thesmartthingformanagementstodoistosetasidecontingentreservefundsvaryingwiththeriskinessof the project， and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capitalIf senior management approves the RFA as presented， the sum in question become

26、stheresponsibilityofthedesignatedprojectsponsor.However,iftheapprovedcapitalrequestincludes allowances such as a Management Reserve”, this may or may not be passed on totheprojectssponsor， depending onthe policies of the organization。FortheapprovedRFA,theproject sponsorwill，in turn,further delegatee

27、xpenditure authoritytothe projects project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances。 Anexceptionmight be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance。ThenetsumthusarrivedatconstitutestheprojectmanagersApprovedProjectBudget。Note: If management does no

28、t approve the RFA， you should not consider this a project failure.Eitherthegoalsobjectivesjustificationandplanningneedrethinkingtoincreasethevalueofthe projectsdeliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the availableresourcesand funding。The Projects Execution Phase

29、The project managers Project Budget responsibilityOnce this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager， a reverse process to convert it into a working control documentThat is, the money available mustbedivided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been up

30、graded!This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget， or theProject Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as aProjectCost Plan。Onalargeprojectwheredifferentcorporateproductiondivisionsareinvolved ，theremaybeafurther intermediate ste

31、p of creating Control Accounts for the separate divisions, so that eachdivision subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs。Observe that ， since the total Project Budget received formal approval fromExecutiveManagement， you， as project manager， must likewise seek and obtain fromExecutive

32、Management， via the projects sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total projectbudgetOften this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested ProductScopeChange.Insuchacasetheprojectssponsorwilleitherdrawdown on the management reserve in hisorher possession， or submit a suppl

33、ementary RFA to upper management。Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages we canfurtherdistribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much moneywehaveasaBaseline”costforeachactivity.This provides us with the base of reference for the cost cont

34、rol function。 Of course，depending onthe circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to controlis then ata higher and coarser level。Use of the Earned Value techniqueIf we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoringongoingworkisthe”Earn

35、edValue(EV)techniqueThisisaconsiderableartandsciencethatyou mustlearn about from texts dedicated to the subject。But essentially ， you take the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulative totalon the appropriate time base。 Again you can do this at the activity level， WP level or th

36、ewholeproject level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the morework you get involved in。TheCostBaselineThisplannedreferenceS curveissometimesreferredtoastheCostBaseline,typicallyinEVparlance。 That is， it isthe”BudgetedCostof WorkScheduled(BCWS）， or more simplyth

37、e”PlannedValue” （PV）.Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scopechange that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the projectsApproved Project Budget。 work progresses， you can plot the”ActualCostof WorkPerformed”(ACWPorsimply”Actu

38、alCost” AC）。Youcanplototherthingsaswell ，seediagramreferredtoabove,andifyoudontlikewhatyouseethenyouneedtotake”CorrectiveAction.CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic， situational operation and is probably the source of the termcycleinthepopularlymisnamedprojectlifecycle。aside， the Earned Value pu

39、ndits offer various other techniques within the EV processdesignedtoaidinforecastingthefinalresultthatisthe”EstimateAtCompletion” （EAC)。EAC is what you shouldreally be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project.Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in thes

40、ame realm of accuracy as They are usefulbut only if you recognize thelimitations and know whatyou are doing!Butas wesaidatthe beginningit isalot moredifficultto doinpractice andinvolves of work. Butlets face it, thats what project managers are hired for, right？中文译文:R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的询问任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本把握体

41、系是如何设置和应用的这个问题,我们仍有一些缺乏了解。因此，我们打算写出它是如何工作的说明。从理论上讲,项目成本把握并不难.首先，建立一套参考基准.然后,依据工作的进展，监察工作,分析结果显示,猜测最终结果并与参考基线作比较。假如最终结果不令人满足，那么你要对正在进行中的必要的工不得不转变方案.更有可能的是,将会有（或已经）变化的范围转变参考基线，这意味着，每一次范围发生变化，无论如何你都必需转变基线方案。但是通过项目数量未能把握成本，证明在实践中，项目成本把握是很难真正实施的。我们将看到,它还涉及到相当数量的工作，因此,我们不妨在一开头就启动它，通过整个项目的线程寿命来进行工程造价把握。同时，

42、我们将借此机会指出几个显著的适当的地方文件。这些措施包括商业案例,(资）,工作包和工作分解结构，项目章程(或摘要)，项目预算或成本方案，获得的价值和成本基准。全部这些都有助于提高该组织有效地把握项目成本的力量。脚注我要感谢我的伴侣，大师昆汀弗莱明,检查和订正我关于这一主题的工作.(执行)资助的商业案例和应用管关闭的项目风险管理的的重要性。在项目的概念阶段该项目连续进行，这个人往往成为该项目的赞助者。为了确定潜在项目的适用性，大多数组织呼吁编制“商业案例”和“量级的成本，以证明该项目的价值，使其可以与全部其他项目竞争。本.毫无疑问,由于这将为该组织供应一个税务利益 .问题是,你如何再占有全部不结转项目？假如有足够的商业案例的优点,赞助者将连续进展和定义阶段。在该项目的进展或定义阶段在开发阶段的目标是建立一种涉及到生产所需的产品，估量成本,并为该项目的实际执行寻求资本资金的良好的工作的生疏。款或资本拨款恳求（CAR）.工作包和W