旅游市场营销1课件

2022/12/1312022/12/1212022/12/132Arrangmentofthecourse：14weeks,3classhourseachweek.Examination:inthe14thweekEvaluation:Normalperformance:40%Finalexam:60%2022/12/122Arrangmentofthec2022/12/133Welcometomarketing!Yourpassporttosuccess!PhilipKotlerGeneralBackgroundKnowledge2022/12/123Welcometomarketi2022/12/1341.DefinitionofMarketing“Market”isderivedfromtheLatin“mercari”whichmeans“tobuyortrade”.

Butmarketingismorethanjustbuyingandtrading.2022/12/1241.DefinitionofMa2022/12/135DefinitionofMarketing“Theprocessofbuildinglastingrelationshipsthroughplanning,executingandcontrollingtheconception,pricing,promotionanddistributionofideas,goodsandservicestocreatemutualexchangethatsatisfyindividualandorganizatonalneedsandobjectives.”----S.Carter2022/12/125DefinitionofMar2022/12/136/p-42138004.html2022/12/126http://www.docin.co2022/12/137/p-42138004.html2022/12/127http://www.docin.co2022/12/138DefinitionofMarketinginthisbook2022/12/128DefinitionofMar2022/12/139DefinitionofMarketinginthisbookMarketingistheartandscienceoffinding,retaining,andgrowing

profitablecustomers.2022/12/129DefinitionofMar2022/12/1310Thepurposeofabusinessistocreateandmaintainsatisfied,profitablecustomers.Customersatisfactionleadingtoprofitisthecentralgoalofmarketingforhospitalityandtourism.2022/12/1210Thepurposeofa2022/12/13112022/12/12112022/12/13122022/12/12122022/12/13132.Themarketingprocess营销过程2022/12/12132.Themarketingp2022/12/13142022/12/12142022/12/13152022/12/12152022/12/1316A.UnderstandcustomersNeeds.(需要）Humanbeingshavemanycomplexneeds.*basicphysicalneedsforfood,clothing,warmth,andsafety;*socialneedsforbelonging,affection,fun,andrelaxation;*esteemneedsforprestige,recognitionandfame;*individualneedsforknowledgeandself-expression.2022/12/1216A.Understandcust2022/12/1317A.Understandcustomers(2)Wants.(欲求）Wantsarehowpeoplecommunicatetheirneeds.(3)Demands.(需求）

Peoplehavealmostunlimitedwantsbutlimitedresources.Theychooseproductsthatproducethemostsatisfactionfortheirmoney.Whenbackedbybuyingpower,wantsbecomedemands.2022/12/1217A.Understandcust2022/12/1318B.Marketofferings.(市场供给）Somecombinationoftangibleproducts,services,information,orexperiencesthatareofferedtothemarket.2022/12/1218B.Marketoffering2022/12/1319C.Customervalue,expectationsandsatisfaction(a).Customervalue(顾客价值)isthedifferencebetweenthebenefitsthatthecustomergainsfromowningand/orusingaproductandthecostsofobtainingtheproduct.2022/12/1219C.Customervalue,2022/12/1320C.Customervalue,expectationsandsatisfaction(b).Customerexpectations(顾客期望)arebasedonpastbuyingexperiences,theopinionsoffriends,andmarketinformation.2022/12/1220C.Customervalue,2022/12/1321C.Customervalue,expectationsandsatisfaction(c).Customersatisfaction(顾客满意度)Satisfactionwithaproductisdeterminedbyhowwelltheproductmeetsthecustomer’sexpectationsforthatproduct.2022/12/1221C.Customervalue,2022/12/1322D.ExchangesandRelationships交换和关系(a).Exchangeistheactofobtainingadesiredobjectfromsomeonebyofferingsomethinginreturn.2022/12/1222D.ExchangesandR2022/12/1323D.ExchangesandRelationships交换和关系(b).Relationshipmarketing.Relationshipmarketingfocusesonbuildingarelationshipwithacompany’sprfitablecustomers.Mostcompaniesarefindingthattheyearnahigherreturnfromresourcesinvestedingettingrepeatsalesfromcurrentcustomersthanfrommoneyspenttoattractnewcustomers.2022/12/1223D.ExchangesandR2022/12/1324D.ExchangesandRelationships交换和关系(c).Designingcustomer-drivenmarketingstrategy.Marketingmanagementistheartandscienceofchoosingtargetmarketsandbuildingprofitablerelationshipswiththem.

①Selectingcustomerstoserve.

②Choosingavalueproposition.2022/12/1224D.ExchangesandR2022/12/1325①Selectingcustomerstoserve.

Thecompanymustselectthosemarketsegmentsitwishestoserve2022/12/1225①Selectingcustom2022/12/1326②Choosingavalueproposition.

Thecompanymustalsodecidehowitwillservetargetedcustomers—howitwilldifferentiateandpositionitselfinthemarketplace.Acompany’svaluepropositionisthesetofbenefitsorvaluesitpromisestodelivertoconsumerstosatisfytheirneeds.2022/12/1226②Choosingavalue2022/12/1327E.Markets市场Amarketis

asetofactualandpotentialbuyersofaproduct.Thesebuyersshareaparticularneedorwanttahtcanbesatisfiedthroughexchangerelationships.2022/12/1227E.Markets市场Amar2022/12/1328Marketingmeansmanagingmarketstobringaboutprofitablecustomerrelationships.2022/12/1228Marketingmeansma2022/12/13293.FiveMarketingManagementPhilosophiesProductionconceptB.ProductconceptC.SellingconceptD.MarketingconceptE.Societalmarketingconcept2022/12/12293.FiveMarketing2022/12/1330ProductionconceptTheproductionconceptholdsthatcustomerswillfavorproductsthatareavailableandhighlyaffordable,andthereforemanagementshouldfocusonproductionanddistributionefficiency.2022/12/1230Productionconcept2022/12/1331B.ProductconceptTheproductconceptholdsthatcustomerspreferexistingproductsandproductforms,andthejobofmanagementistodevelopgoodversionsoftheseproducts.2022/12/1231B.Productconcept2022/12/1332C.SellingconceptThesellingconceptholdsthatcustomerswillnotbuyenoughoftheorganization’sprdcuctsunlesstheorganizationundertakesalargesellingandpormotioneffort.2022/12/1232C.Sellingconcept2022/12/1333D.MarketingconceptThemarketingconceptholdsthatachievingorganizationalgoalsdependsondeterminingtheneedsandwantsoftargetmargetsanddeliveringthedesiredsatisfactionmoreeffectivelyandefficientlythancompetitors.2022/12/1233D.Marketingconce2022/12/1334E.SocietalmarketingconceptThesocietalmarketingconceptholdsthattheorganizationshoulddeterminetheneeds,wants,andinterestsoftargetmarketsanddeliverthedesiredsatisfactionsmoreeffectivelyandefficientlythancompetitorsinawaythatmaintainsorimprovestheconsumer’sandsociety’swell-being.2022/12/1234E.Societalmarket2022/12/13354.PrepareanIntegratedMarketingPlanThecompany’smarketingstrategyoutlineswhichcustomersthecompanywillserveandhowitwillcreatevalueforthesecustomer.Next,themaketerdevelopsanintegratedmarketingprogramthatwillactuallydelivertheintendedvaluetotargetcustomers.2022/12/12354.PrepareanInte2022/12/1336Themarketingprogrambuildscustomerrelationshipsbytransformingthemarketingstrategyintoaction.Itconsistsofthefirm’smarketingmix,thesetofmarketingtoolsthefirmusestoimplementitsmarketingstrategy.Themajormarketingmixtoolsareclassifiedintofourbroadgroups,calledthefourPsofmarketing:product,price,placeandpromotion.2022/12/1236Themarketingprog2022/12/13375.BuildingCustomerRelationshipsCustomerrelationshipsmanagement(CRM)involvesmanagingdetailedinformationaboutindividualcustomersandcarefullymanagingcustomer“touchpoints”inordertomaximizecustomerloyalty.“customertouchpoints”isanyoccasiononwhichacustomerencountersthebrandandproduct–fromactualexperiencetopersonalormasscommunicatioinstocasualobservation.2022/12/12375.BuildingCustom2022/12/13386.CapturingValuefromCustomersWetrytocapturevaluefromourcustomersintheformofcurrentandfuturesales,marketshare,andprofits.Bycreatingsuperiorcustomervalue,thefirmcreateshighlysatisfiedcustomerswhostayloyalandbuymore.2022/12/12386.CapturingValue2022/12/1339CustomerloyaltyandretentionB.Growingshareofcustomer.C.Buildingcustomerequity.2022/12/1239Customerloyaltya2022/12/1340CustomerloyaltyandretentionThebenefitsofcustomerloyaltycomefromcontinuedpatronageofloyalcustomer,reducedmarketingcosts,decreasedpricesensitivityofloyalcustomers,andpartnershipactivitiesofloyalcustomers.2022/12/1240Customerloyaltya2022/12/1341Reducedmarketingcostsaretheresultofrequiringfewermarketingdollarstomaintainacustomerthantocreateonandthecreationofnewcustomersthroughthepositiveword-of-mouthofloyalcustomers.Thelifetimevalueofacustomeristhestreamofprofitsacustomerwillcreateoverthelifeofhisorherrelationshipwithabusiness.2022/12/1241Reducedmarketing2022/12/1342B.GrowingshareofcustomersBeyondsimplyretaininggoodcustomerstocapturecustomerlifetimevalue,goodcustomerrelationshipmanagementcanhelpmarketerstoincreasetheirshareofcustomer—thesharetheygetofthecustomer’spurchasingintheirproductcategories.2022/12/1242B.Growingshareo2022/12/1343C.Buildingcustomerequity顾客资产Customerequityisthediscountedlifetimevaluesofallthecompany’scurrentandpotentialcustomers.Onebuildscustomerequitybydeliveringproductsthatcreatehighcustomersatisfactionandhavehighperceivedvalue.指某公司现有和潜在顾客终身价值折现后的总和2022/12/1243C.Buildingcustom2022/12/1344Chapter1Thetourismmarketingenvironment2022/12/1244Chapter1Thetouri2022/12/1345Objectives:1.Thedefinitionsoftourism,2.therelationshipbetweentourism,leisureandrecreation3.Tourismasasystem2022/12/1245Objectives:1.The2022/12/13461.TheintroductiontotourismTourism:isprimarilyabouthumanactivityinvolvingtravelfromanoriginatingareatoadestinationforpleasureorbusinesspurposes.----culturalprocess----economicprocess----socialexchangeprocess

2022/12/12461.Theintroductio2022/12/1347Theessenceoftourismmarketing:theattractionofapotentialvisitorfromageneratingareatoareceivingdestination.

2022/12/1247Theessenceoftou2022/12/13482.TourismdefinitionsTourismisthetermgiventotheactivitythatoccurswhentouriststravel.Itencompasseseverythingfromtheplanningofthetrip,thetraveltotheplace,thestay,thereturn,andthereminiscencesaboutitafterwards.Itincludestheactivitiesthetravellerundertakesaspartofthetrip,2022/12/12482.Tourismdefinit2022/12/1349thepurchasesmadeandtheinteractionsthatoccurbetweenhostandguest.Insum,itisalloftheactivitiesandimpactsthatoccurwhenavisitortravels.

(MillandMorrison,1992)2022/12/1249thepurchasesmade2022/12/1350◆pre-purchaseactivity:preparation◆thejourneytoandfromthedestination◆post-consumptivebehaviour◆activitiesatthedestinationincludingfouroverlappingphases2022/12/1250◆pre-purchaseact2022/12/1351◆anamalgamofphenomenaandrelationships3.Charactersoftourism◆twofundamentalelements:thejourneytothedestination(dynamicelement),andthestay(staticelement)◆takingplaceawayfromthenormalplaceofresidenceandwork,differentactivities2022/12/1251◆anamalgamofph2022/12/1352◆shortterm,temporary◆takingplaceforanumberofreasons,butexcludetakinguppermanentresidenceoremployment◆primarilytheconsumptionofproductsandservicesprovidedbypublicandprivateorganizatons◆involvingconsiderablebenefitsanddisbenefitstosociety2022/12/1252◆shortterm,temp2022/12/13534.tourism,leisureandrecreationLeisure:inessence,itcanbethoughtofasacombinedmeasureoftimeandattitudeofmindtocreateperiodsoftimewhenotherobligationsareataminimum

(Cooper,1993)recreation:legitimatepursuitoractivityduringleisuretime,mainlyhomeorlocallybased.2022/12/12534.tourism,leisur2022/12/1354tourism,leisureandrecreationtourism:----tripsawayfromhome,

----recreationalactivitiesformingpartoftheoverallexperience.2022/12/1254tourism,leisure2022/12/1355

tourism,leisureandrecreationDistinguishableandIndistinguishableThemajordistinguishingfeatureislocation.Leisureandrecreationformpartofalifestylewhichismainlyhomeorneighbourhoodbased,tourism,onthecontrary,isaboutleisureandrecreationalactivitiesadoptedaspartofadifferentlifestyle,theveryreasonfortravel.2022/12/1255tourism,leisur2022/12/13565.TourismasasystemTourisviewedasasystembyMillandMorrison,withthemarketprocessatitscore.Fourintegratedpartsoftourismsystem:1.Themarket2.Travel3.Destination4.Marketing2022/12/12565.Tourismasasy2022/12/13575.Tourismasasystem1.Themarket:emphasizingtheneedtounderstandconsumerbehaviour,thepurchaseoftravelinawidevarietyofforms.2.Travel:flowsofvisitors,characteristics,existingtrendsandforecastsforthefuture.3.Destination:themixoffacilitiesandattractions,stimulatingthesellingoftravel2022/12/12575.Tourismasasy2022/12/1358InvolveingdestinationmarketingtoexistingandpotentialvisitorsthroughavarietyofintermediariesFollowingamarketplanUsingmarketingmanagementtools4.Marketing2022/12/1258Involveingdestina2022/12/13592022/12/1212022/12/1360Arrangmentofthecourse：14weeks,3classhourseachweek.Examination:inthe14thweekEvaluation:Normalperformance:40%Finalexam:60%2022/12/122Arrangmentofthec2022/12/1361Welcometomarketing!Yourpassporttosuccess!PhilipKotlerGeneralBackgroundKnowledge2022/12/123Welcometomarketi2022/12/13621.DefinitionofMarketing“Market”isderivedfromtheLatin“mercari”whichmeans“tobuyortrade”.

Butmarketingismorethanjustbuyingandtrading.2022/12/1241.DefinitionofMa2022/12/1363DefinitionofMarketing“Theprocessofbuildinglastingrelationshipsthroughplanning,executingandcontrollingtheconception,pricing,promotionanddistributionofideas,goodsandservicestocreatemutualexchangethatsatisfyindividualandorganizatonalneedsandobjectives.”----S.Carter2022/12/125DefinitionofMar2022/12/1364/p-42138004.html2022/12/126http://www.docin.co2022/12/1365/p-42138004.html2022/12/127http://www.docin.co2022/12/1366DefinitionofMarketinginthisbook2022/12/128DefinitionofMar2022/12/1367DefinitionofMarketinginthisbookMarketingistheartandscienceoffinding,retaining,andgrowing

profitablecustomers.2022/12/129DefinitionofMar2022/12/1368Thepurposeofabusinessistocreateandmaintainsatisfied,profitablecustomers.Customersatisfactionleadingtoprofitisthecentralgoalofmarketingforhospitalityandtourism.2022/12/1210Thepurposeofa2022/12/13692022/12/12112022/12/13702022/12/12122022/12/13712.Themarketingprocess营销过程2022/12/12132.Themarketingp2022/12/13722022/12/12142022/12/13732022/12/12152022/12/1374A.UnderstandcustomersNeeds.(需要）Humanbeingshavemanycomplexneeds.*basicphysicalneedsforfood,clothing,warmth,andsafety;*socialneedsforbelonging,affection,fun,andrelaxation;*esteemneedsforprestige,recognitionandfame;*individualneedsforknowledgeandself-expression.2022/12/1216A.Understandcust2022/12/1375A.Understandcustomers(2)Wants.(欲求）Wantsarehowpeoplecommunicatetheirneeds.(3)Demands.(需求）

Peoplehavealmostunlimitedwantsbutlimitedresources.Theychooseproductsthatproducethemostsatisfactionfortheirmoney.Whenbackedbybuyingpower,wantsbecomedemands.2022/12/1217A.Understandcust2022/12/1376B.Marketofferings.(市场供给）Somecombinationoftangibleproducts,services,information,orexperiencesthatareofferedtothemarket.2022/12/1218B.Marketoffering2022/12/1377C.Customervalue,expectationsandsatisfaction(a).Customervalue(顾客价值)isthedifferencebetweenthebenefitsthatthecustomergainsfromowningand/orusingaproductandthecostsofobtainingtheproduct.2022/12/1219C.Customervalue,2022/12/1378C.Customervalue,expectationsandsatisfaction(b).Customerexpectations(顾客期望)arebasedonpastbuyingexperiences,theopinionsoffriends,andmarketinformation.2022/12/1220C.Customervalue,2022/12/1379C.Customervalue,expectationsandsatisfaction(c).Customersatisfaction(顾客满意度)Satisfactionwithaproductisdeterminedbyhowwelltheproductmeetsthecustomer’sexpectationsforthatproduct.2022/12/1221C.Customervalue,2022/12/1380D.ExchangesandRelationships交换和关系(a).Exchangeistheactofobtainingadesiredobjectfromsomeonebyofferingsomethinginreturn.2022/12/1222D.ExchangesandR2022/12/1381D.ExchangesandRelationships交换和关系(b).Relationshipmarketing.Relationshipmarketingfocusesonbuildingarelationshipwithacompany’sprfitablecustomers.Mostcompaniesarefindingthattheyearnahigherreturnfromresourcesinvestedingettingrepeatsalesfromcurrentcustomersthanfrommoneyspenttoattractnewcustomers.2022/12/1223D.ExchangesandR2022/12/1382D.ExchangesandRelationships交换和关系(c).Designingcustomer-drivenmarketingstrategy.Marketingmanagementistheartandscienceofchoosingtargetmarketsandbuildingprofitablerelationshipswiththem.

①Selectingcustomerstoserve.

②Choosingavalueproposition.2022/12/1224D.ExchangesandR2022/12/1383①Selectingcustomerstoserve.

Thecompanymustselectthosemarketsegmentsitwishestoserve2022/12/1225①Selectingcustom2022/12/1384②Choosingavalueproposition.

Thecompanymustalsodecidehowitwillservetargetedcustomers—howitwilldifferentiateandpositionitselfinthemarketplace.Acompany’svaluepropositionisthesetofbenefitsorvaluesitpromisestodelivertoconsumerstosatisfytheirneeds.2022/12/1226②Choosingavalue2022/12/1385E.Markets市场Amarketis

asetofactualandpotentialbuyersofaproduct.Thesebuyersshareaparticularneedorwanttahtcanbesatisfiedthroughexchangerelationships.2022/12/1227E.Markets市场Amar2022/12/1386Marketingmeansmanagingmarketstobringaboutprofitablecustomerrelationships.2022/12/1228Marketingmeansma2022/12/13873.FiveMarketingManagementPhilosophiesProductionconceptB.ProductconceptC.SellingconceptD.MarketingconceptE.Societalmarketingconcept2022/12/12293.FiveMarketing2022/12/1388ProductionconceptTheproductionconceptholdsthatcustomerswillfavorproductsthatareavailableandhighlyaffordable,andthereforemanagementshouldfocusonproductionanddistributionefficiency.2022/12/1230Productionconcept2022/12/1389B.ProductconceptTheproductconceptholdsthatcustomerspreferexistingproductsandproductforms,andthejobofmanagementistodevelopgoodversionsoftheseproducts.2022/12/1231B.Productconcept2022/12/1390C.SellingconceptThesellingconceptholdsthatcustomerswillnotbuyenoughoftheorganization’sprdcuctsunlesstheorganizationundertakesalargesellingandpormotioneffort.2022/12/1232C.Sellingconcept2022/12/1391D.MarketingconceptThemarketingconceptholdsthatachievingorganizationalgoalsdependsondeterminingtheneedsandwantsoftargetmargetsanddeliveringthedesiredsatisfactionmoreeffectivelyandefficientlythancompetitors.2022/12/1233D.Marketingconce2022/12/1392E.SocietalmarketingconceptThesocietalmarketingconceptholdsthattheorganizationshoulddeterminetheneeds,wants,andinterestsoftargetmarketsanddeliverthedesiredsatisfactionsmoreeffectivelyandefficientlythancompetitorsinawaythatmaintainsorimprovestheconsumer’sandsociety’swell-being.2022/12/1234E.Societalmarket2022/12/13934.PrepareanIntegratedMarketingPlanThecompany’smarketingstrategyoutlineswhichcustomersthecompanywillserveandhowitwillcreatevalueforthesecustomer.Next,themaketerdevelopsanintegratedmarketingprogramthatwillactuallydelivertheintendedvaluetotargetcustomers.2022/12/12354.PrepareanInte2022/12/1394Themarketingprogrambuildscustomerrelationshipsbytransformingthemarketingstrategyintoaction.Itconsistsofthefirm’smarketingmix,thesetofmarketingtoolsthefirmusestoimplementitsmarketingstrategy.Themajormarketingmixtoolsareclassifiedintofourbroadgroups,calledthefourPsofmarketing:product,price,placeandpromotion.2022/12/1236Themarketingprog2022/12/13955.BuildingCustomerRelationshipsCustomerrelationshipsmanagement(CRM)involvesmanagingdetailedinformationaboutindividualcustomersandcarefullymanagingcustomer“touchpoints”inordertomaximizecustomerloyalty.“customertouchpoints”isanyoccasiononwhichacustomerencountersthebrandandproduct–fromactualexperiencetopersonalormasscommunicatioinstocasualobservation.2022/12/12375.BuildingCustom2022/12/13966.CapturingValuefromCustomersWetrytocapturevaluefromourcustomersintheformofcurrentandfuturesales,marketshare,andprofits.Bycreatingsuperiorcustomervalue,thefirmcreateshighlysatisfiedcustomerswhostayloyalandbuymore.2022/12/12386.CapturingValue2022/12/1397CustomerloyaltyandretentionB.Growingshareofcustomer.C.Buildingcustomerequity.2022/12/1239Customerloyaltya2022/12/1398CustomerloyaltyandretentionThebenefitsofcustomerloyaltycomefromcontinuedpatronageofloyalcustomer,reducedmarketingcosts,decreasedpricesensitivityofloyalcustomers,andpartnershipactivitiesofloyalcustomers.2022/12/1240Customerloyaltya2022/12/1399Reducedmarketingcostsaretheresultofrequiringfewermarketingdollarstomaintainacustomerthantocreateonandthecreationofnewcustomersthroughthepositiveword-of-mouthofloyalcustomers.Thelifetimevalueofacustomeristhestreamofprofitsacustomerwillcreateoverthelifeofhisorherrelationshipwithabusiness.2022/12/1241Reducedmarketing2022/12/13100B.GrowingshareofcustomersBeyondsimplyretaininggoodcustomerstocapturecustomerlifetimevalue,goodcustomerrelationshipmanagementcanhelpmarketerstoincreasetheirshareofcustomer—thesharetheygetofthecustomer’spurchasingintheirproductcategories.2022/12/1242B.Growingshareo2022/12/13101C.Buildingcustomerequity顾客资产Customerequityisthediscountedlifetimevaluesofallthecompany’scurrentandpotentialcustomers.Onebuildscustomerequitybydeliveringproductsthatcreatehighcustomersatisfactionandhavehighperceivedvalue.指某公司现有和潜在顾客终身价值折现后的总和2022/12/1243C.Buildingcustom2022/12/13102Chapter1Thetourismmarketingenvironment2022/12/1244Chapter1Thetouri2022/12/13103Objectives:1.Thedefinitionsoftourism,2.therelationshipbetweentourism,leisureandrecreation3.Tourismasasystem2022/12/1245Objectives:1.The2022/12/131041.TheintroductiontotourismTourism:isprimarilyabouthumanactivityinvolvingtravelfromanoriginatingareatoadestinationforpleasureorbusinesspurposes.----culturalprocess----economicprocess----socialexchangeprocess

2022/12/12461.Theintroductio2022/12/13105Theessenceoftourismmarketing:theattractionofapotentialvisitorfromageneratingareatoareceivingdestination.

2022/12/1247Theessenceoftou2022/12/131062.TourismdefinitionsTourismisthetermgiventotheactivitythatoccurswhentouriststravel.Itencompasseseverythingfromtheplanningofthetrip,thetraveltotheplace,thestay,thereturn,andthereminiscencesaboutitafterwards.Itincludestheactivitiesthetravellerundertakesaspartofthetrip,2022/12/12482.Tourismdefinit2022/12/13107thepurchasesmadeandtheinteractionsthatoccurbetweenhostandguest.Insum,itisalloftheactivitiesandimpactsthatoccurwhenavisitortravels.

(MillandMorrison,1992)20