环境工程专业英语翻译(1)1

UnitoneEnvironmentalEngineering环境工程Whatisthisbookabout?这本书是关于什么的?Theobjectiveofthisbookistointroduceengineeringandsciencestudentstotheinterdisciplinarystudyofenvironmentproblems;theircause,whytheyareofconcern,andhowwecancontrolthem.Thebookincludes:这本书的目的是使理工科的学生了解跨学科间的研究环境问题;它们的起因,为什么它们受到关注,以及我们怎样控制它们。这本书包括:●Descriptionofwhatismeantbyenvironmentandenvironmentalsystems描述环境和环境系统意味着什么●Informationonthebasiccausesofenvironmentaldisturbances关于引起环境干扰基础原因的基本信息●Basicscientificknowledgenecessarytounderstandthenatureofenvironmentalproblemsandtobeabletoquantifythem理解环境问题本质,并能够定量计算它们所必要的基本科学知识●Currentstateofthetechnologyofenvironmentalcontrolinitsapplicationtowater,airandpollutionproblems目前适用于水,空气和环境污染问题的环境控制技术的现状●Considerablegapsinourcurrentscientificknowledgeofunderstandingandcontrollingmanyofthecomplexinteractionsbetweenhumanactivitiesandnature我们目前的科学知识在理解和控制人类活动和自然之间复杂的相互作用的科学知识上存在相当大的缺陷●Manyenvironmentalproblemswhichcouldbeeliminatedorreducedbytheapplicationofcurrenttechnology,butwhicharenotdealtwithbecauseofsociety’slackofwilltodoso,orinmanyinstancebecauseofalackofresourcestodoso.许多环境问题可以应用现有技术消除或减少,但没有得到处理是因为社会缺乏这样做的意愿,或者像许多例子那样因为缺乏资源。Someimportantdefinitions一些重要的定义Wheretheyarefirstusedinthisbook,definitionsareintroducedinblockform,asshownhere,orprintedinboldtype.如果他们是第一次使用这本书,定义介绍采用块形式,像这里显示的一样,或印成黑体字。Environmentisthephysicalandbiotichabitatwhichsurroundsus;thatwhichwecansee,hear,touch,smell,andtaste.环境是围绕在我们周围物质生命的栖息地,在那里我们可以看到,听到,触到,闻到和品尝到。System,accordingtowebster’sdictionary,isdefinedas“asetorarrangementofthingssorelatedorconnectedastoformaunitororganicwhole;as,asolarsystem,irrigationsystem,supplysystem,theworldoruniverse”.系统,依据韦伯斯特的字典,被定义为“一组或一系列能形成一个整体或者有机整体的相互关联的事物;比如,太阳系统,灌溉系统,供水系统,世界或宇宙”。Pollutioncanbedefinedasanundesirablechangeinthephysical,chemical,orbiologicalcharacteristicsoftheair,water,orlandthatcanharmfullyaffectthehealth,survival,oractivitiesofhumansorotherlivingorganisms.污染可以被定义为有害影响健康,生存,活动的人或其它生物体的空气,水,或土地的物理,化学或生物特性的不应该有的变化,。Whenthegoalofimprovingenvironmentalquanlityistakentobeimprovinghumanwellbeing,theword“environment”broadenstoincludeallkindsofsocial,economic,andculturalaspects.Suchbroadnessisunworkableinmanyrealsituationsandimpracticalinatextbookdesignedforaonesemestercourse.Ourexaminationofenvironmentalproblemsisthereforelimitedbyourdefinitionof“environment”.当改善环境质量的目标是用来改善人类的福祉,“环境”这个词扩大到包括社会,经济,文化等所有方面的内容。这种扩大化在许多实际情况下是不可行的,在本被设计为一学期课程的教科书中也是不切实际的。因此,我们对环境问题的考察限于我们定义的“环境”。InteractionofSystems互动系统Anumberofdifferentenvironmentalproblemsareassociatedwithwater,air,orlandsystems.许多不同的环境问题都涉及到水,空气,或土壤。Manyoftheseproblemswillapplyonlywithinoneofthesesystems,justifyingthebreakdownintothesecategories.许多这些问题只适用于在其中一个系统,这为这些种类中的细目分类提供了充分的理由。Suchaclassificationisalsousefulforeasiercomprehensionofrelatedproblemswithinonesystem.这种分类也有助于更容易理解一个系统里的相关问题。Moreover,itissensiblebecause,formanagerandadministrativereasons,suchsubfieldsasairpollution,watersupply,wastewaterdisposal,andsolidwastedisposalareoftendealtwithseparatelybygovernmentalagencies.此外,这样做是明智的,因为是行政管理的原因,空气污染,水供应,固体废物处置和废水处理,往往是由政府机构分别处理的。Unfortunately,manyimportantenvironmentalproblemsarenotconfinedtoanair,water,orlandsystem,butinvolveinteractionsbetweensystems.很遗憾的是,许多重要的环境问题不只局限于一个空气,水,或土壤系统,更涉及系统之间的相互作用。Acurrentexampleistheacidrainproblemstemmingfromtheemissionofsulfurdioxideandnitrogenoxidegasesintotheatmospherefromthestacksofgeneratingstations,smelters,andautomobileexhausts。目前的一个例子是酸雨问题,根源是许多发电站,冶炼,汽车排出的废气中进入大气的二氧化硫和氮氧化物气体。Thesegasesarethentransportedbyaircurrentsoverwideregions.这些气体被气流运送到广阔的区域。Rainfall“washesthemout”,creatingacidrainwhichisharmfultoaquaticlife,forests,andagriculturalcrops.雨水“将它们洗去”,产生了对水生生物,森林和农作物有害的酸雨。Twoexamplesofinteractionbetweensystemsthatcausemajorenvironmentaldisturbancesarepresented-thebuildupofatmosphericcarbondioxide,aglobalproblem,andtheacidrainproblem,normallyofregionalnature.两个有关于系统间相互作用引起的环境问题有:空气中的二氧化碳的增加的全球性问题以及具有地域性质的酸雨问题。EnvironmentalDisturbances环境扰乱Manymajorimprovementstoourstandardoflivingcanbeattributedtotheapplicationofscienceandtechnology.我们的生活水平的许多重大改进,可以归因于科学和技术的应用。Afewexamplesarenotedhere.Canyouthinkofothers?这里举几个例子,你可以想到其他例子吗?●Theproductionofmoreandbetterqualityfood生产更多更好的优质食品●Thecreationofhousingasprotectionfromextremesfromclimatesandaslivingspace创造能避免极端的气候的保护所和生活空间●Thebuildingoffastandreliablemeansoftransportation建设快速和可靠的运输方式●Theinventionofvarioussystemsofcommunication发明各种通信系统●Theinventionofmachinestoreplacehumanoranimalpower发明机器来取代人类或动物体力●Thesupplyofsafewaterandthedisposalofwastes安全水的供应和废物处理●Theeliminationofmanyinfectiousdiseases消灭多种传染疾病●Theeliminationofmostwaterbornediseasesinthedevelopedworldthroughimprovedwatertechnology在多数发达国家中通过改善水技术来消除大部分水源性疾病●Theavailabilityofleisuretimethroughgreaterproductivity,providingtheopportunityforculturalandrecreationalactivities通过提高生产力,腾出闲暇时间,为进行文化和娱乐活动提供机会●Theprotectionfromtheworsteffectsofnaturaldisasterssuchasfloods,droughts,earthquakes,andvolcaniceruptions.防止最严重的自然灾害的影响,如洪水,干旱,地震和火山爆发Withtheseimprovements,however,havecomedisturbingsideeffects,suchaslostarableland,disappearingforests,environmentalpollution,andneworganismsresistanttocontrols.然而,随着(科学技术的发展,产生了不良的副作用,比如,可耕地丢失,森林消失,环境污染,微生物滋长.Manyeffectsoriginallyconsideredtobejustnuisancesarenowrecognizedaspotentialthreatstonatureandtohumans.起初只是让我们觉得讨厌的许多事物现在被认为对自然和人类存在的潜在威胁。Inanagrariansociety,peoplelivedessentiallyinharmonywithmature,raisingfood,gatheringfirewood,andmakingclothingandtoolsfromtheland.在农业社会,人们基本上能与自然和谐地相处,他们在陆地上种植食物,收集木材,做衣服和工具。Thewastesfromanimalsandhumanswerereturnedtothesoilasfertilizer.Few,ifany,problemsofwater,land,orairpollutionoccurred.动物和人类排放的废物作为肥料又返到土地中。很少有水污染、土地污染、和空气污染问题产生。Thecitiesofancienttimes,particularlythoseoftheRomanEmpire,hadsystemstosupplywaterandtodisposeofwastes.在古代的城市,特别是像罗马帝国那类,就已经存在供水系统和处置废物系统。TheaqueductssupplyingtheancientcityofRome(populationabout1millionwithsafewaterfromtheCloacaMaxima,thebestknownandoneoftheearliestsewerstobebuilt,areexamplesofsuchsystems.从一个最早建成之一且最有名的污水管-----古罗马大排泄沟,向古代的罗马城市提供安全的水的渠道,就是这样的系统的例子。ThemunicipaltechnologyofancientcitiesseemstohavebeenforgottenformanycenturiesbythosewhobuiltcitiesthroughoutEurope.古代的城市的市政技术似乎已经被那些在整个欧洲建设城市的人遗忘了许多个世纪。Watersupplyandwastedisposalwereneglected,resultinginmanyoutbreaksofthenineteenthcentury,itwasnotrealizedthatimproperwastesdisposalpollutedwatersupplieswithdisease-carryingorganisms.供水和废物处置的忽略,导致爆发了许多疾病,如痢疾、霍乱、伤寒和其它水传染的疾病。Theindustrialrevolutioninnineteenth-centuryBritain,Europe,andNorthAmericaaggravatedtheenvironmentalproblemssinceitbroughtincreasedurbanization.直到19世纪中期,人们才意识到废物的不正确处置导致引起疾病的微生物污染了供水。Bothphenomena,urbanizationandindustrialization,wereandarefundamentalcauseofwaterandairpollutionwhichthecitiesofthattimewereunabletohandle.19世纪在英国、欧洲和北美的工业革命带来了工业化和城市化的增加,也加重了环境问题。城市化和工业化在过去和现在都是引起水和空气污染的根本原因,这在当时的城市还不能够处理。Rapidadvancesintechnologyforthetreatmentofwaterandthepartialtreatmentofwastewatertookplaceinthedevelopedcountriesoverthenextfewdecades.Thisledtoadramaticdecreaseintheincidenceofwaterbornediseases.在接下来的几十年,水处理和废水的部分处理技术在发达国家快速发展,这导致水传染疾病的发生率大量地减少。Notethatallwastesdischargeintoenvironment,andthuspolluteoutwater,air,andlandsystem.注意,所有的废物排放到环境中都会污染我们的水、空气和土地系统。UnitTwoHistoricalOverviewofHazardousSubstanceDisposalintheUSA回顾美国处置危险物品的历史HazardoussubstancedisposalpracticesintheUnitedStateshavetraveledfullcircle.在美国,处理危险物品的做法走过了迂回的道路。Priorto1978therewerefewifanyregulationsregardingthedisposalofthesematerials.1978年之前,很少有任何关于如何处置这些物品的法规。Improperdisposalofmanyofthesechemicalsresultedinhealthproblemsformanycitizens,contaminatedwatersupplies,anddestructionofwildlife.这些化学物品的不当处置使市民陷入健康问题,水供应受污染和野生生物死亡。WiththeenactmentoftheResourceConservationandRecoveryAct(RCRAof1978,manufacturingfacilitiesnowhaveanobligationtoaccountforallwastematerialsthataregeneratedbythefacility.随着《资源回收法》(1978年的颁布,工厂有责任处置生产设施所产生的所有废弃材料。ImplementationofRCRAhasbeenslow.但是《资源回收法》的实施一直进展缓慢。FromtheveryearlyindustrialperiodintheUnitedStates,whichstartedabout1920,untilseveralyearsaftertheSecondWorldWar,therewaslittleconcernforthepropermethodsofdisposalofwastematerialsthatweregeneratedasby-productsduringmanufacturingprocesses.在美国,从大约1920年开始的早期工业时代,到第二次世界大战结束后几年里,几乎没人关注处理在生产过程中作为副产品产生的废弃材料的合理方法。Upuntilthe1960’sitwasquitecommontofindfreshwaterriversandstreamsfouledwithwastechemicalsfrommanufacturing,saltwaterfromoilproductionwellsandwasteacidsfromsteelmillactivities.直到1920年,随处可见被生产过程产生的废化学品、油井排出的盐水和炼钢厂排出的废酸所污染的淡水河流和溪涧。Virtuallyeveryconceivablewasteoil,solvent,orresinwastecouldbefoundintherivers.事实上,所有能够想象到的废物如废油、溶剂、废树脂都可以在河流里面找到。Thelawsofthetimewereeithernon-existentornotenforced.然而当时的相关法律要么不存在,要么是没有被实施。Theliteraturehasmanyexamplesofhealthproblemsofindividualsaswellasdestructionoffishandwildlifehabitat.文献记载了许多关于个体的健康问题以及鱼类、野生动物栖息地被破坏的例子。Manyothercasesoccurredthatwerenotreportedintheliterature.许多其他发生的事件并未记载在文献上。Otherwastematerialsweredumpedhaphazardlyinmakeshiftexcavationseitheratthefactorysideorthroughoutthecountryside.其他废弃物质被草率地埋在临时挖掘在工厂还有乡村旁边的坑洞里面。Becauseofignoranceandlackofeconomicincentivestodoso,thefactoriesmadenoattempttopreventcontaminationofundergroundwatersuppliesbythechemicalsthatweredisposedof.因为对环境的忽视以及缺少经济刺激,各企业完全没有意识来保护被化学物质污染的地下水供应。Infact,knowledgeablescientistsofthetimeacceptedlandirrigationandpercolationintotheporousundergroundformationsasmethodsofwastetreatment.事实上,当代有见识的科学家,已经接受了土地清洗以及过滤可渗透地底层这两种可作为处理废弃物治理的方法。Althoughthesetreatmentmethodsmayhavebeenintendedfornon-hazardousmaterials,theywereemployedforhazardousmaterialsaswell.尽管这些治理方法或许用于无毒害的物质,同时也可用于有毒害的物质。Again,therewerenogovernmentalregulationsprotectingtheundergroundaquifersfromthesepractices.再者,并没有政府法规因保护地下蓄水层而禁止这些处理方法。TheproblemofdisposalofhazardouschemicalsdidnotimprovewiththecreationoftheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPAinthe1996.处理有毒化学物品的问题并没有因为在1996年环境保护局的成立而有所改善。Thefirsttaskofthenewagencywastocleanupriversandstreams.此新兴机构的首要任务是清理干净河流水道。Unfortunately,nooneinpowerinthegovernmentatthetimehadinsightintotheproblemsthatweretobecreatedbythenewagency.不幸的是,当时政府的执政人员没有一个洞察到那个新兴机构带来的问题。TheEPAwasquitesuccessfulinthoseearlydaysintheenforcementofthemanywaterpollutionlawsthatevolved.环境保护局在早些年的时候,对于强制执行污染法的发展还是做的相当成功的。Asthepracticeofthedumpingofhazardousmaterialsintotheriversandstreamswaseliminated,thosesamematerialscreatedotherdisposalproblems.随着往河道排放有毒物质的习惯的消除,但这些相同的物质造成了其他处理问题。Manyofthechemicalssavedfromthesewerwereeitherworthlessorofsuchalowvalueastorenderrecoveryuneconomical.在下水道中回收到的物质不是没价值的就是低廉到不足以恢复利用.Insomecases,recoverywastechnicallyimpossible.Asaresult,thewastechemicalsweredisposedofbyanyconvenientmethod.一些情况下,回收在技术层面上是不可能的.所以,很多废弃的化学药物都被很简单地扔掉了.Themakeshiftdumpssiteswereexpanded.Becausetherewerenoregulationsregardingdisposal,临时的垃圾场已经不得不扩大,因为没有任何关于废物丢弃的法规.personswithnotechnicalexpertiseenteredintothebusinessofwastedisposal.Theprofitswerehighbecausetheseindividualsdidnottreatthechemicals.很多不具备专业技术知识的人就进入了废物处理的行业,由于这些人并没有真正处理掉化学药物,所以这个行业的利润相当高。Inmostcases,thewastematerialsweretransportedtoimpoundingareaslocatedonprivatelyownedland.很多情况下,废弃的化学物品会被运到私有土地上的贮物地.Thefactoriesthatgeneratedthewastefeltsecureinthebeliefthatthewastetransporterwasdisposingofthematerialsinanacceptablemanner.那些产生废弃物的厂家之所以感到安心是因为他们相信废物处理者会用一种合理的方法来处置掉废物.Inmostcases,thiswasnotacorrectassumption.但很多情况下,事实并非如此.Theunregulateddumpsgrewbothinsizeandcomplexity.乱堆放的大小规模和复杂度上都在增长.Whenthedumpswereincloseproximitytopopulatedareasorpublicwatersupplies,aseriesofproblemsbegintodevelop.当垃圾场很接近居住区或公共水源的话,一系列的问题将会开始产生.Citizensinthevicinityofsomeofthedumpsbegantoexperienceadversehealthproblemssuchasskinrashes,paralysis,cancer,andbirthdefects.在一些垃圾场附近的居民会开始遇到一些像皮肤疹.麻痹.癌症.先天缺陷等不利的健康问题.Insomecases,theseproblemshavebeenattributedtocontaminationfromthechemicals.有时候,这些问题会归属于受到化学药物的污染而产生的.Becauseoftheseconcerns,theUnitedStatesCongressenactedanewlegislationthatdealtwiththeissuesofdisposalofhazardouswastes.由于这些担心,美国国会通过了一个新的处理有害废物过程中出现问题的法规。ThiswastheResourceConversationandRecoveryActof1987.这就是1987年的资源回收保护法。ThepurposeoftheActwastoallowregulationofhazardoussubstancedisposal.这项法案的目的是同意有害物质处理的方法。质被以对环境安全的方法处理。ManyoftheimproperdumpsthatwerecreatedpriortotheRCRAlegislationwerecreatedbypersonswithlittleornofinancialresources.在资源回收保护法由很少或者没有经济资源的人确立之前,很多不合理的堆放已经造成。Asaresult,thecleanupoftheoldsiteshasbeentakenoverbythegovernmentunderlegislation.使得清理旧的堆放点的工作由政府接管。Asofthistime,theresultsofthesecleanupeffortshavebeenineffective.在这一时期,这些清理的努力效率不高。Becauseoftheabusesandproblemsofthepast,regulationshavebeenenactedthatforceAmericanindustrytoberesponsibleforhazardouswastedisposal.由于过去的这些问题,强制美国工业承担有害物质处理的责任的相关法规已经颁布。Theproblemswerebroughtaboutbyalackofeconomicindentivestotheindustrialcommunity.这些问题是由对工业界缺少经济动力带来的。Theproblemswerecompoundedbytheinexperienceandlackofinsightbyelectedgovernmentalofficialsandthegovernmentalagencieschargedwiththetaskofregulation.政府官员缺乏经验和洞察力以及政府机构对法规的控制任务使得问题复杂化。Althoughsufficientlegislationisnowinplacetosolvetheproblemofhazardouswastedisposal,itisunlikelythatatruesolutionwillbeachievedfor20yearsorlonger.尽管现在有足够的法规来解决有害物质的处理问题,但是在二十年或更长的时间内是不可能真正的解决的。Onlythroughinteractionbetweenindustryscientists,andgovernmentregulatorswilltruesolutionsbefinallyrealized.只有通过工业界,科学家和政府部门的共同努力,才能最终得到解决。Unit3WhatisWasteReduction/WasteMinimization?什么是废物减量化,废物最少化AgreatamountoftimehasbeenspentintheU.S.discussingtheterminologyofsuchwordsassourcereduction,wasteminimization,recyclingandpollutionprevention.EPAhasprovidedthefollowingdefinitions.美国花费了大量的时间在讨论像资源减量化,废物最小化,循环和阻止污染这些术语上,EPA已经提供了以下的定义。Sourcereduction:Anyactionthatreducestheamountofwasteexitingaprocess.资源减量化:减少在于一个过程中的大量废物的任何行为。Thisincludes,forexample,processchanges,feedstockchanges,improvedhousekeeping/management,andin-processrecycling.它包括,例如,过程调整,原料调整,提高管理和回收内在循环。Wasteminimization:Thereductiontotheextentfeasible,ofwastethatisgeneratedorsubsequentlytreated,stored,ordisposedof.废物最少化:产生的废物最大程度减少,然后处理,存储,或者处置。Itincludesanysourcereductionorrecyclingactivityofwasteorthereductioninthetoxicityofwaste(orbothaslongasthereductionisconsistentwiththegoalofminimizationofpresentandfuturethreatstohumanhealthandtheenvironment.它包括了被导致了只要减量化与现在或将来威胁到人类健康和环境的最小化的目标一致的总容量或废物数量的减少或者废物毒性的减少,或者两方面兼备的发生器承担任何资源减量化或循环的活动。Recycling:Theuseorreuseofawasteasasubstituteforacommercialproductorasafeedstocktoanindustrialprocess.回收:作为一个商业产品的代替品,或作为一个工业过程的原料的利用或再利用。Thisincludestheon-oroff-sitereclamationofusefulfractionsofawasteortheremovalofcontaminantsfromawastetoallowreuse.它包括了废物的有用的小部分或来自允许再用的去除了污染物的废物的在现场或离开现场的回收利用。Pollutionprevention:Pollutionmaybegeneratedduringmanufacturing,orwhencertainproductsareusedcommerciallyorbyconsumers.污染的防止:污染可能在生产过程之中产生,或者在当一个产品被用作商业用途或被消费者使用的时候产生。Thismaybepreventedinthreeways:changinginputs/reducingrelianceontoxicorhazardousrawmaterials;processchanges/increasingefficiency/improvedmaintenancesuchasequipmentmodifications,betterhousekeeping,in-processclosed-looprecycling;orchangingoutputs/reducingrelianceontoxicorhazardousproducts.这样可能在三个方式上被阻止:改变投入/减少依赖有毒物或有害的原材料;改变过程/增加效率/提高类似设备修改的维修保养,更好的管理,在过程中闭环循环;或者改变产出/减小对有毒或者有害产品的依赖。WiththepassageoftheHazardousandSolidWasteAmendmentstotheResourceConservationandRecoveryActin1984,theU.S.Congressestablishedanationalpolicydeclaringtheimportanceofreducingoreliminatingthegenerationofhazardouswaste.随着1984年危险废物和固体废物修正案资源保护和恢复法的通过,美国国会建立一个国家政策来表明回收或消除危险废物的产生重要性。TheCongressherebydeclaresittobeanationalpolicyofUnitedStatesthatwhereverfeasible,thegenerationofhazardouswasteistobereducedoreliminatedasexpeditiouslyaspossible.美国国会宣称它是一项无论在美国哪里都可行的国家政策,要尽可能迅速地回收或消除危险废物的产生。Wastethatisneverthelessgeneratedshouldbetreated,stored,ordisposedofsoastominimizepresentandfuturethreattohumanhealthandtheenvironment.然而产生的废物还是应被处理、储存或处置,从而尽量减少现在和将来对人类健康和环境的威胁。In1990,theU.S.CongresspassedthePollutionPreventionAct,establishingahierarchyofwastemanagementasnationalpolicy;statingthatfirstpollutionshouldbepreventedorreducedwhereverfeasible;在1990年,美国国会通过污染防治法,建立了一个全国废物管理政策。表明第一污染应该被预防或回收;second,wasteshouldberecycledinanenvironmentallysafemanner;第二,废物应该用一种环保安全的方式进行循环利用;third,wasteshouldbetreated;第三,废物应该被处理;andasalastresort,wasteshouldbedisposedoforreleasedtotheenvironment.最后,废物应该被除去或降解到环境。Withthepassageoftheseandotherenvironmentallaws,wasteminimizationhasbecomeanimportantoperatingphilosophyintheUnitedStates.在美国,随着这些和其他环境法规的通过,废物最少化成为一种重要的工作理念.WasteReduction/WasteMinimizationTechniques废物回收/废物最少化技术While,foranyparticularplant,wasteminimizationiscertainlyplantorsitespecific,thetechniquesusedcanbegroupedintoavarietyofmajorcategories:同时,对于一些特定的工厂,废物最少化的当然是在具体的工厂或在实地,能用的技术能被分为以下主要几类:●productchanges产品改变●processchanges过程改变●equipmentmodifications设备改造●operatingpractices操作训练●recyclingandreuse回收和再利用Inpractice,thewasteminimizationopportunitiesarelimitedonlybytheingenuityoftheplantpersonnel.在实践中,尽量减少废物的机会是有限的,只有被工厂人员的聪明才智所利用.Thetechniqueshaveapplicationsacrossthevastrangeofindustriesandmanufacturingprocess,andcanapplytobothhazardousandnonhazardouswaste.这种技术已经被运用与大数量的工业和工业化生产过程,同时也被应用于有危险性和非危险性的废物。Productchanges产品改变Frequently,anontoxicmaterialcanbesubstitutedforonethatistoxic.Examplesofthisarenumerous.有毒的材料经常能被无毒的所代替。这样的例子有很多。Lckheedsuccessfullyswitchedfromanalkalinecyanidecadmiumbathtoanacidicnon-cyanidecadmiumbath.Theplatingqualitywasequivalentandoverallcostswerereducesduetosimplifiedwastetreatmentrequired,eventhoughtheplatingchemicalscostswerehigher.洛克希德公司成功地将碱性氰化物电镀槽转变成酸性非氰化物电镀槽。由于简化废物处理需求,电镀质量相当和总成本减少了,即使电镀化学品的成本较高。一直参与测试完全不同的“安全替代品”,以取代有害溶剂,如氯乙烯,三氯乙烷和三氟三氯乙烷,用于金属清洁.Asaresult,someofthemaintenanceshopsarebeginningtoreplacetheirvapordegreasersandcoldsolventtankswithaqueous,biodegradablesolvents.因此,一些维修店已开始用可生物降解的溶剂取代蒸汽除油剂和冷溶剂罐。APSMaterials,Inc,generatedtwohazardouswastes,1-1-1trichloroethaneandmethanolfromcoldsolventdegreasingoperationsassociatedwiththeirplasmaspraydepositionprocess.美国物理协会材料公司在其等离子体喷雾沉淀工艺的冷溶剂脱脂操作过程中会产生出两种危害性废物,即1,1,1-三氯乙烷和甲醇。Aterpine-basedcleanerwassubstitutedforthetwohazardousmaterialsandhasproventobeanenvironmentalandeconomicsuccess.一种可用松油稀释的清洁剂被用作代替两种危险物质,并已经证明在环境上和经济上的得到了成功。RikerLaboratories,a3Mpharmaceuticalplant,coatedmedicinetabletswithsolvents.莱克实验室,一间3M的制药工厂,在药片上涂上溶剂。Solventemissionshadthepotentialtoexceedairpollutionlimitsforthcoming.溶剂的排放物有可能已经超出现有的空气污染的极限。Awater-basedcoatingwasdevelopedtoreplacethesolventcoating.一种水溶性涂料被开发用作代替溶剂的涂料。Differentsprayingequipmentwasinstalledandtheproductwastestedforqualityandstability.不同的喷雾设备已经被安装了,并测试了产品的质量和稳定性。Testswerepositiveand24tonsofairpollutionwaspreventedannually.这些测试都是成功的,每年阻止了24吨的空气污染物的排放。AT&Thasagoaltoachievea100%reductionofCFC’sby1994andtoeliminatetoxicairemissionsofalltypesbytheyear2000.美国最大的电话电信公司AT&T有一个要实现的目标,就是在1994年使含氯氟烃减少100%并在2000年消除各种的有毒的废气排放物。Theyhavesubstitutedaderivativeofcitrusfruitsandotherorganiccompounds,forsolventsusedtocleanelectronicequipment;andeliminatedCFCuseincircuitboardmanufacturingprocessthroughuseoftheAT&TLowSolidFluxer.他们已经用一种柠檬果制品和其他有机物所代替过去曾用于清洁电子设备的溶剂;通过使用AT&T的低固态助焊剂取消了含氯氟烃在电路板制造工艺的使用。Substitutingd-LimoneneforchlorinatedsolventsallowedXeroxtoreducetheamountofsolventsemittedtotheatmospherefromabout200000poundsto17000pounds.用柠檬油精代替氯化溶剂可以允许Xerox(施乐的溶剂排放到大气中的量从200,000镑减少至17,000磅。Processchanges过程变化AhighpressurewaterstripoperationhasenabledXeroxtorecycle800000poundsofnickeland2millionpoundsofaluminumtubesperyear,andtoreturn160000poundsofseleniumtosuppliersforreuse.一种高压水提取操作已经能使Xerox(施乐每年回收800,000磅的镍和2,000,000磅的铝管,还有退回160,000磅的硒给供应商循环再用。ScottPaperCompanyhasdevelopedasystemforsourcedeductionknownas“precycling”inwhichpaperproductsarepackagesinlargerquantities,thussavingmaterialsthatwouldotherwisehavebeenwasted.造纸公司开发了一个被称为“预循环”的资源回收系统,它的纸产品被大量的包装,因此省下了那些可能要浪费掉的材料。Chevronusedtodisposeoftankbottomsinlandfills.Itnowusesacentrifugetoseparateoilfromwater;itreusedtheoilandtreatsthewaterleavingonlyasmallamountofsolidtobelandfilled(lessthan5%oftheorginalsludge.雪佛龙公司过去曾经在填埋场处理罐底沉淀物。该公司现在是用一种离心机把油从水中分离出来;它对那些油进行再利用并且对那些水进行处理使得只残留很少部分的固体被填埋(少于5%的原始污泥含量。At3M’sOfficeSystemDivisionplantstemperaturecontrolcomputerhasbeenadaptedtocontrolstart-uptemperature,andhaseliminatedstart-upwasteforanannualsavingof533200dollarsinsilver,paper,solvents,andlabor.Thecapitalcostwas16000.137dollarstonsofsolidwastewereeliminated,53tonsofairpollutionwasprevented.在3M的办公系统分离部门,一台温度控制电脑已经被应用来控制开启温度,还有那开启所排放的废物,在银,纸张,溶剂和劳动力等方面每年省下了533,200美元。它的成本是被排放的16,000美元处理掉137吨的固体废物,防止了53吨的空气污染物。Equipmentmodifications设备改造Equipmentmaybemodifiedtoenhancerecoveryorrecyclingoperations,toproducelesswaste,ortoimproveoperatingefficiency.设备能够被改造以能够提高恢复或回收的操作率,产生更少废物,或提高操作效率。AnExxonplantinBayway,NewJersey,installedfloatingroofson16tanksstoringthemostvolatilechemicalsusedintheplant.Afloatingroofisacoverthatrestsontheliquidchanges,thusminimizingtheformationofchemicalvaporsthathavetobeventedfromthetank.Emissionsreductionstotaled680000poundsperyear,worthmorethan200000dollars.在新泽西的Bayway,一个Exxon部门,在16个容器中安装了储存了在工厂中使用的最有挥发性的化学品的浮顶。浮顶根随着液体水平的变化而升降,因此,使必须从工厂被排放出的化工蒸气减到最小。污染物每年总的减少量是680,000磅,价值超过200,000元。Operatingpractices操作实践Oftengoodhousekeepingisthekeytobetterwasteminimization.Suchpracticesasmaintainingastrictpreventivemaintenanceprogrameliminatemuchwastedmaterial.一般地,好的内部管理是废物最少化的关键。这样维持一个严密的定期检修的经验能够减少很多废料。Sloppyhousekeepingpracticessuchasleakingtanks,valves,orpumpsmaycauseprocesschemicalstospillrequiringcleanupanddisposal.散漫的内部管理习惯如储罐,阀门,或泵的泄漏,可能造成处理化学制品溢出而需要采取净化和处理措施。Poorcleaningofpartsorinadequatedropouttimewillreducetheusefulnessoftheprocesschemicals,increasethecostofwastedisposal,andthecostofchemicalreplacement.不够干净或不充足的洗液时间将减少处理化学制品的有用性,增加废物处理的费用和化工替换的费用。Improvingmaterialsreceiving,storage,andhandlingpracticesareneededinsomeplantssothatmaterialsarenot“wasted”beforeuse.在一些部门中提高材料的接收,储存和操作实践,材料在没有使用之前就不是“废物”了。Educatingemployeessothatequipmentisusedcorrectlyisimportant.Forexample,operatortrainingonproperpaintingspraytechniquesmayofferuntoldbenefits.对于教育工作者设备能正确的使用是很重要的,例如,操作者适当地运用喷雾技术可能会有意想不到的收获。Purchasingandinventorypracticesmayneedimprovement.Rawmaterialsthatlosetheirusefulnessbecausetheysitontheshelftoolongbecomewaste.Havingagreementswithsupplierstorecyclecontainers,uselesspackaging,ect.,mayreducethesolidwasteofthecompany.采购和仓库里的管理可能需要改善。原材料因为存放在架子上太长时间失去了它们本身的使用价值,从而变成了废物。和供销商达成协议去回收容器,使用少用包装等等,都可以减少固体废物在工厂里的产生。Propersegregationofwastestreamswillallowmoreopportunityforrecyclingandreclamation.对废物的适当分离将为回收和利用提供更多的机会。Itisoftenlessexpensivetorecycleachemicalthantopurchasenewmaterialandpayfoedisposalcosts.回收利用一个化学品比购买一个新的物质和对旧物质的处置费用要低。Sometimes,amaterialmaynolongermeetspecificationsforonepurposebutmaybesuitableforothersusesatthefacility.有时候,一个材料也许不再符合原来的规格,但是也许可以适用于设施上的其他用途。Forexample,solventusedtocleanpaintequipmentmayserveasthinnerforthenextbatch.Closed-loopsystemseliminatedisposalofhazardouschemicals.譬如,被用于清洗油漆设备的溶剂也许对于下一批产品起稀释剂作用。Recyclingandreuse回收和再利用Recyclingcanbeperformedbothon-siteandoff-site.Wasteexchangesmayprovideopportunityforawasteatoneplanttobecomeausefulproductatanother.回收可以在现场和非现场执行。废物交换可以为在一个工厂的废物成为在另一个上有用的产品提供机会。WasteMinimization/WasteReductionImplementation废物最小化/实现减少废物Inorderforanindustrytoimplementwasteminimization/wastereduction,certainelementsneedtobeinplace.为了在行业中能够实现废物最小/减少废物,某些要素必须具备的.Firstthereshouldbeownershipormanagementcommitment.首先,是所有者或管理层的承诺.Thisshouldbeawrittenpolicyindicatingsupportofwasteminimization.这应当有一个书面政策表明支持废物的最小化.Managementmustberecognizedasdesirousofthisprogrambeforeemployeeswilladoptitwithanyenthusiasm.在员工热心采用以前,管理者必须是被认为是很支持废物最小化的。Thecommitmenthastobereal,toaffectproductiondecisions,andtobeapartofjobperformanceevaluations.承诺必须是真实的,影响生产的决定,并成为工作绩效评价的其中一部分.Awasteminimizationteamshouldbeestablished.应该成立一个废物最小化的机构。Althougheachcompanywilldifferandspecificnumberandmakeupvarydependingoncompanysize,complexity,andresources,thisteamshouldbecomposedofavarietyofpeoplewhocanbecontributetothewasteminimizationeffort.虽然每家公司会有所不同,具体数量和形式取决于公司的规模,复杂性和资源,这个机构应由各种各样的能够为废物最小化作贡献的来组成。Examplesofthosewhoshouldbeapartoftheteamincluderepresentativesfro