英语教学法(王蔷)重点梳理

PAGEPAGE40ACourseinEnglishLanguageTeachingUnit1LanguageandLearning1.1Howdowelearnlanguage？WelearnlanguageatdifferentagesPeoplehavedifferentexperiencesPeoplelearnlanguagesfordifferentreasonsPeoplelearnlanguagesindifferentwaysPeoplehavedifferentcapabilitiesinlanguagelearningLearningcanbeaffectedbythewayhowlanguageistaughtLearningisaffectedbythedegreeofsuccessoneisexpecttoachieve.Thusthechallengeconfrontinglanguageteachingishowteachingmethodologycanensuresuccessfullearningbyallthelearnerswhohavemoredifferencesthanthecommonality.1.2Whatarethemajorviewsoflanguage?Structuralview:Languageisalinguisticsystemmadeupofvarioussubsystems:phonology,morphology,lexicologyandsyntacx.Tolearnalanguageistolearnitsvocabularyandstructuralrules.Functionalview:Languageisalinguisticsystemaswellasameansfordoingthings.Learnerslearnalanguageinordertobeabletodothingswithit(useit).Toperformfunctions,learnersneedtoknowhowtocombinethegrammaticalrulesandthevocabularytoexpressnotionsthatperformthefunctions.Interactionalview:Languageisacommunicativetooltobuildupandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.Learnersneedtoknowtherulesofalanguageandwhere,whenandhowitisappropriatetousethem.ViewsonLanguageLearningTwobroadlearningtheories：Process-orientedtheoriesareconcernedwithhowthemindorganizesnewinformation.Condition-orientedtheoriesemphasizethenatureofhumanandphysicalcontext.BehavioristtheoryB.F.SkinnerAstimulus-responsetheoryofpsychologyAudio-lingualmethodTheideaofthismethodisthatlanguageislearnedbyconstantrepetitionandthereinforcementoftheteacher.Mistakeswereimmediatelycorrected,andcorrectutteranceswereimmediatelypraised.CognitivetheoryInfluencedbyNoamChomsky(revivalofstructurallinguistics)Languageasanintricaterule-basedsystemAlearneracquireslanguagecompetencewhichenableshimtoproducelanguage.Oneinfluentialideaofcognitiveapproachtolanguageteachingisthatstudentsshouldbeallowedtocreatetheirownsentencebasedontheirownunderstandingofcertainrules.ConstructivisttheoryJeanPiaget(1896—1980)Thelearnerconstructsmeaningbasedonhis/herownexperiencesandwhatisalreadyknown.Socio-constructivisttheoryVygotsky“ZoneofProximalDevelopment(ZPD);scaffolding(脚手架)Learningisbestachievedthroughthedynamicinteractionbetweentheteacherandthelearnerandbetweenlearners.Whatarethequalitiesofagoodlanguageteacher?Agoodlanguageteacherdoesnotsolelydependonhis/hercommandofthelanguage.Thereareavarietyofelementthatcontributestothequalitiesofagoodlanguageteacher.Theseelementcanbecategorizedintothreegroups:ethicdevotion,professionalqualityandpersonalstyles.Howcanonebecomeagoodlanguageteacher?Wallace’s(1991)‘reflectivemodel’(Figure1.1,p.9)Stage1:languagedevelopmentStage2:learning,practice,reflectionThelearningstageisthepurposefulpreparationthatalanguagenormallyreceivesbeforethepractice,Thispreparationcaninclude:Learningfromothers’experienceLearningthereceivedknowledgeLearningfromone’sownexperiencesThepracticestage(2senses)Pseudopractice:shortperiodoftimeassignedtodoteachingpracticeaspartofone’spre-serviceeducation,usuallyunderthesupervisionofinstructorsTherealclassroomteaching:whatateacherundertakesafterhe/shefinishesformaleducationTeachersbenefitfrompracticeiftheykeeponreflectingonwhattheyhavebeendoingGoal:professionalcompetenceUnit2CommunicativePrinciplesandTask-basedlanguageteachingLanguageusedinreallifeLanguagetaughtintheclassroomLanguageusedinreallifeLanguagetaughtintheclassroomToperformcertaincommuntcativefunctionsTofocusonforms(structuresorpatterns)Useallskills,bothreceptiveskillsandproductiveskillsTofocusononeortwolanguageskillsandignoreothers.UsedinacertaincontextToisolatelanguagefromitscontextWhatiscommunicativecompetence?Tobridgethegapbetweenclassroomlanguageteachingandreal-lifelanguageuse,onesolutionistoadoptCLT,thegoalofwhichistodevelopstudents’communicativecompetence.Definition:CommunicativecompetenceincludeboththeknowledgeaboutthelanguageandtheknowledgeabouthowtousethelanguageappropriatelyincommunicativesituationsFivecomponentsofcommunicativecompetence(Hedge2000)LinguisticcompetenceLinguisticcompetence（语言能力）Theknowledgeoflanguageitself,itsformandmeaning.PragmaticcompetencePragmaticcompetence（语用能力）Theappropriateuseoflanguageinsocialcontext.DiscourseDiscoursecompetence （语篇能力）One’sabilitytocreatecoherentwrittentextorconversationandtheabilitytounderstandthemStrategiccompetence（策略能力）Strategiccompetence（策略能力）Fluency（流利性）Fluency（流利性）One‘sabilityto‘linkunitsofspeechtogetherwithfacilityandwithoutstrainorinappropriateslownessorundue（过分的，不适当的）hesitation’ImplicationsforteachingandlearningTeachingmustenablelearnerstograspthefivecomponentsofcommunicativecompetence,butnotjustthelinguisticcompetence.PrinciplesofCLTThreeprinciplessuggestbyRichardandRodgers：1Communicationprinciple：involverealcommunication2Taskprinciple：Carryoutmeaningfultasks3Meaningfulnessprinciple：MeaningfullanguagetothelearnerHowattproposesaweakandastrongversionofCLT:WeakversionLearners first acquire language as a structural system and then learn how to use it communication.Strongversion“languageisacquiredthroughcommunication”(Howatt,1984:279)MajorActivityTypesofCLTAsequenceofactivitiesrepresentedinLittlewood(1981:86)Pre-communicativeactivitiesStructuralactivitiesQuasi-communicativeactivities类似,准,半Communicativeactivities (PP22-23)FunctionalcommunicationactivitiesSocialinteractionactivitiesSixCriteriaforevaluatingcommunicativeclassroomactivities(mainfeaturesofcommunicativeactivities?)CommunicativepurposeCommunicativedesireContent,notformVarietyoflanguageNoteacherinterventionNomaterialscontrolWhatisLanguageTeaching?TBLTisafurtherdevelopmentofCLT.Itsharesthesamebeliefintheuseoflanguageinreallife,butstressestheimportancetocombineform-focusedteachingwithcommunication-focusedteaching.FourcomponentsofataskApurposeAcontextAprocessAproductExercises,exercise-tasksandtasksExercise-tasksishalfwaybetweentasksandexercises.Thiskindofactivityconsistsofcontextualizedpracticeoflanguageitem.DifferencesbetweenPPPandTBLTTheway1 studentsuseandexperiencelanguageinTBLTisradicallydifferentfromPPP.Theway*Freeoflanguagecontrol*Agenuineneedtouselanguagetocommunicate*Afreeexchangeofideas*Appropriateness&accuracyoflanguageformingeneral,notproductionofasingleform*Agenuineneedforaccuracyandfluency2. TBLcanprovideacontextforgrammarteachingandform-focusedactivities.PPPisdifferentinthisaspect.AcontextEncouragedtothink,analyze,notsimplytorepeat,manipulateandapplyAmorevariedexposuretonaturallanguageLanguageformsnotpre-selectedforfocusLearner-freeselectionoflanguageTBLcycleleadfromFluencytoaccuracy(+fluency)InTBLIntegratedskillspracticedHowtodesigntasks?Step1Thinkaboutstudents’needs,interests,andabilitiesStep2BrainstormpossibletasksStep3EvaluatethelistStep4ChoosethelanguageitemsStep5PreparingmaterialsCLTandTBLTintheChinesecontextProblemswithCLTTheveryfirstandforcefulargumentiswhetheritisculturallyappropriateThesecondproblemofCLTrelatetothedesignthesyllabusforteachingpurposeintheclassroom.Thethirdproblemisthatwhethersuchanapproachissuitableforallageleveloflearnersorallcompetenceleveloflearners.ConstraintsofTBLTThefirstisitmaynotbeeffectiveforpresentingnewlanguageitemsThesecondconstraintisTimeasteachershavetopreparetask-basedactivitiesverycarefully.The thirdisthecultureoflearningTheforthisLevelofdifficultyUnit3AbriefhistoryofforeignlanguageteachinginChinaAphaseofrestoration(1978-1985)Aphaseofrapiddevelopment(1986-1992)Aphaseofreform(1993-2000)Aphaseofinnovationfrom2000DesigningprinciplesfortheNationalEnglishCurriculumAimforeducatingallstudents,andemphasizequality-orientededucation.Promotelearner-centeredness,andrespectindividualdifferences.Developcompetence-basedobjectives,andallowflexibilityandadaptability.Pay close attention to the learning process, and advocate experiential learning participation.Attachparticularimportancetoformativeassessment,andgivespecialattentiontothedevelopmentofcompetence.Optimizelearningresources,andmaximizeopportunitiesforlearningandusingthelanguage.GoalsandobjectivesofEnglishlanguageteachingThenewcurriculumisdesignedtopromotestudents’overalllanguageability,whichiscomposedoffiveinterrelatedcomponents,namely,languageskills,languageknowledge,affects,learningstrategiesandculturalunderstanding.Eachcomponentisfurtherdividedintoafewsub-categories.Languageteachingisnolongeraimedonlyfordevelopinglanguageskillsandknowledge,butexpandedtodevelopinglearners’positiveattitude,motivation,confidenceaswellasstrategiesforlife-longlearningalongwithcross-culturalknowledge,awarenessandcapabilities.Theoveralllanguageabilityrequiredinthe2001NationalEnglishCurriculumincludesthefollowingaspectslanguageknowledge,languageskills,learningstrategies,affectsandculturalunderstanding.DesignoftheNationalEnglishCurriculumThestandardsfordifferentlevelsofcompetenceChallengesfacingEnglishlanguageteachersEnglishlanguageteachersareexpectedtochangetheirviewsaboutlanguagewhichisnotasystemoflinguisticknowledgebutameansforcommunication.Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtochangetheirtraditionalroleofaknowledgetransmittertoamulti-roleeducator.Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtousemoretask-basedactivitiesandputthestudentsatthecenteroflearning.Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtousemoreformativeassessmentinadditiontousingtests.Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtousemoderntechnologyinteaching,creatingmoreeffectiveresourcesforlearningandforusingthelanguage.Unit4.LessonPlanning备课whyisLessonPlanningImportantAlessonplanisaframeworkofalessoninwhichteachersmakeadvancedecisionsaboutwhattheyhopetoachieveandhowtheywouldliketoachieveit.Properlessonplanisessentialforbothnoviceandexperiencedteachers.Languageteachersbenefitfromlessonplanninginanumberofways.Makesteachersawareoftheaimsandlanguagecontentsofthelesson,soastoplantheactivitiesandchoosethetechniquesaccordingly;Helpsteachersdistinguishthevariousstagesofalessonandseetherelationshipbetweenthemsothattheactivitiesofdifferentdifficultylevelscanbearrangedproperlyandthelessoncanmovesmoothlyfromonestagetoanother;Givesteacherstheopportunitytoanticipatepotentialproblemssothattheycanbeprepared;Givesteachers,esp.noviceones,confidenceinclass;Raisesteachers’awarenessoftheteachingaidsneeded;Planningisagoodpracticeandasignofprofessionalism.Teachersbenefitfromproperlessonplansinanumberofotherways:Toenabletheteachertoimproveclasstiming;Lessonplansarealsoanaidtocontinuingdevelopment(plan-practice-reflection)PrinciplesforGoodLessonPlanningAim:therealisticgoalsforthelesson;whatstudentsareabletodobytheendofthelesson;Variety:differenttypesofactivities;awideselectionofmaterials;Flexibility:preparingsomeextraandalternativetasksandactivitiesLearnability:thecontentsandtasksplannedshouldbewithinthelearningcapabilityofthestudentsDoingthingsthatarebeyondorbelowthestudents’copingabilitywilldiminishtheirmotivation(Schumann,1999)Linkage:thestagesandthestepswithineachstagearelinkedwithoneanother.whataremacroplanningandmicroplanning?MacroplanningPlanningoveralongperiodoftimewhichisoftendonebyagroupofteachers,itprovidesageneralguidanceforlanguageteachersMicroplanningPlanningforaspecificunitoralesson,whichusuallylastsfromonetotwoweeksorfortytofiftyminutesrespectively.Microplanningisoftenanindividualactivityanddifferentteachersmayhavedifferentwaysofwritingtheirownlessonplans.Macroplanninginvolvesthefollowing：KnowingabouttheprofessionKnowingabouttheinstitutionKnowingaboutthelearnersKnowingaboutthecurriculum/syllabusKnowingaboutthetextbookKnowingabouttheobjectivesAlessonplanusuallyhasthefollowingcomponents:BackgroundinformationTeachingaimsTeachingcontentandskillsStagesandproceduresTeachingaidsEndoflessonsummaryOptionalactivitiesandAssignmentAfterlessonreflectionUnit5ClassroomManagementWhatisclassroomClassroommanagementisthewayteachersorganizewhatgoesonintheclassroom.(68)thegoalofclassroommanagementistocreateanatmosphereconduciveto(有助于)interactinginEnglishinmeaningfulways(Gebhard,1996).Efficientclassroommanagementcanbeachievedwhenthefollowingsixconditionsaremet.Theteacherplaysappropriateroles.Theteacherprovidesclearerinstructions.Studentsaregroupedinawaysuitableforthelearningactivities.Thereisdisciplineaswellasharmonyintheclass.Theteacherasksappropriatequestions.Thestudents’errorsaretreatedproperlyWhatrolesdoestheteacherplay?Controller(whattolearn;howtolearn)Assessor(correctingmistakes;organizingfeedback)Organiser(students’activities)Prompter(whenssdon’tknowwhattodo…)Participant(inss’activities)Resource-providerTeachers’rolesarenotstatic.Theychangewiththedevelopmentofthesociety.Newroles:TeacherasfacilitatorCreateapositivelearningenvironment,usevariousstrategiestomotivatelearners,guidestudentsinplanningandassessingtheirlearninganddeveloptheirlearningstrategies…TeacherasguideActivatestudents’priorknowledge;findindividualinterestsandexplorepotentialcapabilities;acknowledgeandrespectindividualdifferences;giveeachequalopportunityinlearning;evaluatestudents’developmentfairlyfromanall-roundperspective…TeacherasresearcherObserveaproblem,reflectonthereasons,thinkaboutpossiblesolutions,implementthesolutionsandevaluatetheresults…Q:Howmuchcontrolisneeded?AppropriatedegreeofcontrolDifferentactivitiesneedadifferentdegreesofcontrol.Themorecommunicativeanactivity,thelesscontrolitneeds.Q:Whatdoestheteacherdoasanassessor?CorrectingmistakesThecorrectingshouldbegentle,notharsh.OrganizingfeedbackThefeedbackshouldbefocusedonstudents’successorprogresssothatasuccess-orientedlearningatmospherecanbecreated.Q:Howtoorganise?Beforetheactivity:whattheactivityisgoingtobelike,anticipatedproblems;clearinstructionsgiventostudents(withT’sdemonstration)Duringtheactivity:overhearwhatthestudentsaresaying,rectifywrongpractices;takenotesforlaterfeedbackQ:Whentoprompt?Whenstudentsarenotsurehowtostartanactivity,orwhattodonext,orwhattosaynext…Whenastudentdoesn’tseemtobereadyforananswer,…Whenastudentfinisheswithaveryshortanswer,…Q:whytoparticipateinstudent’sactivities?Monitoring+participatingchangestherolefromanauthoritytoaconversationalist,agoodchanceforstudentstopractiseEnglishwithasuperior…Q:Whatdoyouthinkofthejug-and-mugmetaphor?Althoughthejug-and-mugmethodhasbeenwidelycriticised,theteacherisstillconsideredagoodandconvenientresourceforthestudents.”Howtogiveeffectiveclassroominstructions?Classroominstructionsrefertothetypeoflanguageteachersusetoorganizeorguidelearning.Tousesimpleinstructionsandmakethemsuitthecomprehensionlevelofthestudents;Tousetheonlywhenitisnecessary;GivestudentstimetogetusedtolisteningtoEnglishinstructions;Usebodylanguagetoassistunderstanding;Modelthetask/activitybeforelettingstudentsintogroupsorpairs…Teachersarenotexpectedtodoallthetalkinginclass.Tip:Demonstrationisusuallymoreeffectivethanwords.Whatarethedifferentwaysforstudentgrouping?Wholeclasswork,pairwork,groupwork,individualstudyWholeclassworkAllthestudentsareunderthecontroloftheteacher,doingthesameactivityatthesamerhythmandpace.PairworkStudentsworkinpairsonanexerciseortask.GroupworkStudentsworkinsmallgroupsof3-5students.IndividualstudyStudentsworkontheirownattheirownspeed.Q:Howtogroup?(Groupingmethods)Wholeclassworkisnormallyusedwhenpresentingandexplainingnewlanguageornewinformationanditshouldbeusedwiselybytheteachers.Successfulgroup/pairworkdependsonskillfulorganization.Thebiggestproblemforgroupworkistheselectionofgroupmembers.Whileteachersareencouragetousepairwokandgroupworktoprovidemorepracticechance,individualstudyshouldnotbeforgotten.TypesofstudentgroupingandtheiradvantagesanddisadvantagesinP314(task4)5.5DisciplineinthelanguageclassroomQ:Whatdoesdisciplinemean?5.5DisciplineinthelanguageclassroomDisciplinereferstoacodeofconductwhichbindsateacherandagroupofstudentstogethersothatlearningcanbemoreeffective.(78)Q:Doesdisciplineguaranteeeffectivelearning?No.Theremightbelittlelearningeventheclassisverydisciplined.Althoughdisciplineisnecessary,itisnotasufficientconditionforeffectivelearningasathoroughlyindisciplinedatmospherewillsurelyyieldnolearningatall.(79)Q:Howtomaintaindiscipline?P.79Althoughdisciplineisoftendiscussedtogetherwithclassroommanagement,Classroommanagementskillsarenotsufficientifdisciplineistobeachieved，rather，avarietyofteacher’sbehaviorcontributetodiscipline,suchastheteacher’schoiceofmethodology,theirinterpersonalrelationshipswithstudents,theirpreparationforthelesson.Beside,student’smotivation,whichcanbeenhancedbytheteacheraction,isextremelyimportantfordiscipline.Whenstudentsareengagedinlearning,theywillbedisciplined.(79)Ssareclearaboutlearningpurpose;Ssareabletodotheworkbutfinditchallenging;Ssareemotionally,physicallyandintellectuallyinvolvedbythetasks;Thepresentation,varietyandstructureoftheworkandactivitiesgeneratecuriosityandinterest;Sshaveopportunitiestoaskquestionsandtryoutideas;Sscanseewhattheyhaveachievedandhowtheyhadmadeprogress;Ssgetafeelingofsatisfactionandenjoymentfromthework.Q:Whatcausesdisciplineproblems?Agapinthelesson(e.g.badplanning,equipmentfailstowork)UnclearinstructionsLackofteacherattentionTheteacherconcentratesonlengthyexplanationstooneindividualsothattheothersgetboredWorkistooeasyortoochallengingQ:Whatmeasurescanwetakeforundisciplinedactsandbadlybehavingstudents?Harmer(1983)p.81Actimmediately.Stoptheclass.Rearrangetheseats.Changetheactivity.Talktostudentsafterclass.Createacodeofbehavior.Ur’s(1996)adviceDealwithitquietly.Don’ttakethingspersonally.Don’tusethreats.Howtomakequestioningmoreeffective?Questionsshouldbecloselylinkedtothelearningobjectivesinthelesson;Questionsshouldbestagedsothatthelevelofchallengeincreasesasthelessonproceeds;Thereshouldbeabalancebetweenclosedandopen,lower-orderandhigher-orderquestions;Waittimeisimportanttoallowstudentstothinkthroughtheiranswers;Ssshouldbeprovidedopportunitiestoasktheirownquestionsandseektheirownanswers;Asecureandrelaxedatmosphereoftrustisneededandss’opinionsandideasarevalued.Whattypesofquestionsarethere?(Classificationofquestions)Closedandopenquestions;Displayandgenuinequestions;Lower-orderandhigh-orderquestions;Bloom’staxonomy分类系统(Nuttall,1982)①Knowledge②Comprehension③Application④Analysis⑤Synthesis⑥EvaluationDealingwitherrorsQ:Whatareerrors?Howaretheydifferentfrommistakes?Amistakerefersto“aperformanceerrorthatiseitherarandomguessora‘slipoftongue’,anditisafailureperformancetoaknownsystem”(Brown,2000:218-219)Anerrorhasdirectrelationwiththelearner’slanguagecompetence.Errorsdonotresultfromcarelessnessnorhesitation,butlackofknowledgeinthetargetlanguage.Amistakecanbeself-corrected;anerrorcannotbe.Q:Howtodealwitherrors?Indealingwitherrorsandmistakesweneedtobeclearwhetherthetaskoractivityisfocusingonaccuracyorfluency.Q:Whentocorrecterrors?Generally,itisbestnottointerruptstudentsduringfluencyworkunless breaksdown.Letatrivialmistakepassifmostofthelanguageisright.Forsomecommonmistakes,takeanoteinmindfirstandcorrectafterthestudent’sperformance.Q:Howtocorrecterrors?Differentwaysandtechniques:DirectteachercorrectionIndirectteachercorrectionSelf-correctionPeercorrectionWholeclasscorrectionQ:Whichtechniquestouse?Asageneralrule,indirectteachercorrectionisencouragedratherthandirectonestoavoiddamagingss’andconfidence.Inpractice,self-correctionisencouragedbeforeteachercorrectionorpeercorrection,esp.formistakes.Thewholeclasscorrectionisusedformainerrortypes(e.g.TheBigTen)SummaryRolesoftheteacher:controller,assessor,organiser,prompter,participant,resource-provider,facilitator,guide,researcher,etc.Classroominstructions:simple;suitthelevelofstudentsGrouping:wholeclasswork,groupwork,pairwork,individualstudyDiscipline:toengagessinlearning;howtomaintaindiscipline,howtotreatwithundisciplinedactsQuestioning:differentclassifications;questioningtechniquesErrorcorrection:errorandmistake;differentwaysandtechniquesforcorrectingerrorsUnit6TeachingPronunciationCriticalPeriodHypothesis:abiologicallydeterminedperiodoflifewhenlanguagecanbeacquiredmoreeasilyandbeyondwhichtimelanguageisincreasingdifficulttoacquire.TheroleofpronunciationDebateSideA:studentsdonotneedtolearnpronunciationbecausepronunciationwilltakecareofitselfasthestudentsdevelopoveralllanguageability.SideB:Failureinpronunciationisagreathindrancetolanguagelearning.ViewsofteachingpronunciationvaryTheLearnerswhohavemoreexposuretoEnglishneedlessfocusonpronunciationthanthosewhoonlylearnEnglishintheclass.AdultlearnersneedmorefocusonpronunciationbecausetheyaremorelikelytosubstituteEnglishsoundswithsoundsfromtheirnativelanguage.Theteachingofpronunciationshouldfocusonthess’abilitytoidentifyandproduceEnglishsoundsthemselves.(pronunciationvs.phonetics)Ssshouldnotbeledtofocusonreadingandwriting phonetictranscriptsofwords,esp.foryoungstudents.PhoneticrulesarehelpfulforsstodevelopabilitytocopewithEnglishpronunciationandtheyshouldbeintroducedatasuitablestage.Stressandintonationareimportantandshouldbetaughtfromtheverybeginning.ThegoalofteachingpronunciationThegoalofteachingpronunciationisnottoteachlearnerstoachieveaperfectimitationofanativeaccent,butsimplytogetthelearnerstopronounceaccuratelyenoughtobeeasilyandcomfortablycomprehensibletootherspeakers.Therealisticgoalsofteachingpronunciationisasfollowing:Consistency:thepronunciationshouldbesmoothandnatural;Intelligibility:thepronunciationshouldbeunderstandabletothelisteners;Communicativeefficiency:thepronunciationshouldhelpconveythemeaningthatisintendedbythespeaker.Whataspectsofpronunciationdoweneedtoteach?Pronunciationisanumbrellatermcoveringmanyaspects,besidesoundandphonesymbols,suchasstress,intonation,andrhythm,ofcourse,theseaspectsarenotisolatedfromeachother,rather,theyareinterrelated.Q:Howtoachievegoodpronunciation?PracticemakesperfectBothmechanicalpracticeandmeaningfulpracticearebeneficial.Practisingsounds(Listsomemethodsofpracticingsounds.)Mechanicaldrillingisboringanddemotivating;itisimportanttocombinedrillingpronunciationexerciseswithmoremeaningfulexercisesthatfocusonwhateveraspectofpronunciationisthefocusofthelesson.FocusonasoundFocusonasoundFocusonaindividualsoundsespeciallythosesoundthataredifficulttolearnPerceptionpracticePerceptionpracticeWhatisthegoalofperceptionpractice?Developingthestudents’abilitytoidentifyanddistinguishbetweendifferentsounds.Examplesofperceptionpractice:Usingminimalpairs(withonesounddifference):will/well;ship/sheep;light/nightWhichorder:bear,tear,earSameordifferent?[met],[mi:t]OddoneoutCompletionProductionpracticeProductionpracticeThegoalofproductionpracticeisdevelopingstudents’abilitytoproducesounds.Listenandrepeat(practiceindividualsounds,individualwords,groupsofwords,sentences(mechanicalimitation)Fillintheblanks(insentenceswithwordswhichcontaincertainsounds).Makeupsentences(usingasmanyfromthegivenwordsaspossible).Usemeaningfulcontext(toperformmeaningfultaskssuchasrole-play).Usepictures(toproducemeaningfullanguage).Usetonguetwisters(topracticepronunciation).PractisingstressandintonationTwotypesofstress:word-levelstressItisveryimportanttostressthepropersyllableinmulti-syllabicwords.Thebeststrategyistoemphasizetheimportanceoflearningthestressaspartoflearningaword.Phrase-levelorsentence-levelstressEachphraseorsentencehasonesyllablewhichreceivesgreaterormoreprominentstressthantheothers.Somephrasesorsentencesmayhaveonestressedsyllable,whileothersmayhave5-6stressedsyllables.TeachingmethodsofstressThemostimportantthinginpractisingstressismakingthestudentsawareofwheretostressthewordsorphrases.Usegestures(e.g.clappinghands;usingarmmovements)Usethevoice(raisethevoicetoindicatestress)Usetheblackboard(underlinethestresspartsorwritewithcoloredchalksPracticingintonation(Howtopractiseintonation?)Usehandorarmmovementtoindicatechangeofintonation.Userisingorfallingarrowstomarkintonation.Drawlinestomarkchangeofintonation.Howcanteachershelpthestudentstoimprovepronunciation?Useindividual,pair,groupandwholeclasswork;Usehandsandarmstoconductpractice.Movearoundtheclassroomwhendoingchoralpractice.Varythecriteriaof‘good’togivestudentsconfidence.Doarticulationpracticemorethanonce.Bringinterestsandvarietytothepractice.The main criteria for good pronunciation a