质性研究入门.教学内容

质性研究(yánjiū)入门章崇会第一页，共33页。研究(yánjiū)问题研究(yánjiū)目的研究(yánjiū)背景研究方法研究效度第二页，共33页。研究(yánjiū)时代背景下的人性问题我们必须借有适当的“中介”来认识研究对象。你没有相应的背景，就看不出来，就是从实际出发就是看看到底怎么回事？中介：创造出各种超验的哲学学说，如人类为了寻求最根本的东西(dōngxī)的意义，创造本体论（可能隐藏在经验背后），它在一段时间内就是人们普遍认为的超验的存在。社会科学的哲学背景：本体论(ontology)—无本体论；主客体关系—主体间（intersubjective）关系；现象学（本质即现象）--阐释学（理解和阐释）--建构主义（建构现实）……。第三页，共33页。Insearchofexcellence:lessonsformAmerica’sbest-runcompanies

PetersandWaterman(1982)Theyvisitedcompanies,conductedextensiveinterviews,andstudiedcorporatedocuments.Theyextractedeightattributesofexcellence:abiasforaction;closetothecustomer;autonomyandentrepreneurship;productivitythroughpeople;hands-on,value-driven;sticktotheknitting;simpleform,leanstaff;andsimultaneousloose-tightproperties.Theirresearchhelpedlaunchthequalitymovementthathasnowmovedfrombusinessworldtonot-for-profitorganizationsandgovernment.第四页，共33页。HighlyeffectivepeopleStephencovey(1990)Casestudiesandidentifiedsevenhabitsthesepeoplepractice:beingproactive;beginningwiththeendinmind;puttingfirstthingsfirst;thinkwin/win;seekingfirsttounderstand,thenseekingtobeunderstood;synergizing,orengagingincreativecooperation;self-renewal.第五页，共33页。AnastuteanddedicatedobserverofrelationshipClarkMoustakeas(1995),ahumanisticpsychologistandphenomenologist.Drewdeeplyonhisownexperiencesandclinicalcasestoidentify,distinguish,andelaboratethreeprimaryprocessesthatcontributetothedevelopmentofarelationship:Being-in,Being-for,andBeingwith.Beingwith,asenseofjointenterprise—twopeoplefullyinvolved,struggling,exploring,sharing.Throughcases,dialogues,quotations,case,andintrospectivereflections.Authorilluminatestheprocessofmovingtheprocessandexemplifiesthecontributionofphenomenologicalinquirytohumanisticpsychology.第六页，共33页。

Thedesignofaresearchstudybeginswiththeselectionofatopicandaparadigm.Aparadigmisessentiallyaworldview,awholeframeworkofbeliefs,valuesandmethodswithinwhichresearchtakesplace.Itisthisworldviewwithinwhichresearcherswork.

第七页，共33页。AimforcredibilityThetheoreticalpositioningoftheresearcherThecongruencebetweenmethodologyandmethodsThestrategiestoestablishrigorTheanalyticlensthroughwhichthedataareexamined第八页，共33页。TheoreticalpositioningReferstotheresearcher’smotives,presuppositions,andpersonalhistorythatleadshimorhertoward,andsubsequentlyshapes,aparticularinquiry.Afurtherpositioningoccursthroughdisciplinarysocializationtoparticularresearchapproaches.Disciplinarysocializationoccurswhenaresearchreceiveshisorherresearchtrainingwithinadisciplinarycultureorsettingwhereaparticularapproachiswellknownandaccepted.Theirfailuretoaddressthesefoundationsmaybemorereflectionoftheireducationalexposurethantheirpersonalresearchcapacity.Investigatorsmustalsodemonstratecongruencebetweenthequestionsposedandthegenericapproachemployed.第九页，共33页。MethodologyandmethodsThetermsmethodologyandmethodareusedsynonymouslyorareusedinaninconsistentmanner.Sorelevantmethodologicalissuesandmethodmustbeunderstoodandclearlyarticulatedingenericqualitativestudies.Disciplinaryallegiancesmustbemadeexplicitthenfortworeason:Asasignaltotheresearcher’stheoreticalpositioningAsanindicationofthepossibledisciplinary-relatedmethodologicalinterpretationsandassociatedmethodsofauthors第十页，共33页。ThestrategiestoestablishrigorOurpositionisthatqualitativeresearchersneedto:Articulateaknowledgeable,theoreticallyinformedchoiceregardingtheirapproachtorigorSelectanapproachthatisphilosophicallyandmethodologicallycongruentwiththeirinquiryResearchers’approachestothesetwoissuesmustreflectanunderstandingthatrigorisadeeplytheoreticalissue,notatechnicaloneInvestigatorsneedtoensurerigorbyadheringtoprinciplesthatarecongruentwiththeassumptionsoftheapproachtheyareusing.Ifaparticipatoryactionapproachisused,thestudymaybeevaluatedthedegreetowhichthecollaborationwasachieved,andchangefacilitatedamongparticipantsandresearchers.Theresearchchoicesmadeinanygenericstudyareinformedbyasetofassumptions,preconceptionsandbeliefs.Theseinfluencesneedtobearticulated.第十一页，共33页。TheanalyticlensRefertothemethodologicalandinterpretivepresuppositionsthataresearcherbringstobearonhisorherdata.Theanalyticlensisabouthowtheresearcherengageswithhisorherdata.Identificationoftheresearcher’spositionisoftheutmostimportance,andresearchersmustmaketheirownassumptionsclear,aswellasensurethatthemethodstheychoosearecongruentwiththoseassumptions.第十二页，共33页。VarietyinqualitativeinquiryLincolnandGuba(2000)identifyfive“alternativeinquiryparadigms”:positivism,post-positivism,criticaltheory,constructivism,andparticipatory.Schwandt(2000)discusses“threeepistemologicalstancesforqualitativeinquiry:interpretivism,hermeneutics,andsocialconstructionism”.Crotty(1998)offersthreeprimaryepistemologicalinfluences:objectivism,constructionism,andsubjectivism;these,hepositshaveinfluencesinvaryingdegreesdifferenttheoreticalperspectives:positivism(andpostpositivism),interpretivism(symbolicinteraction,phenmenology,hermeneutics),criticalinquiry,feminism,andpostmodernism.Creswell(1998)distinguishes“fivequalitativetraditionsofinquiry”:biography,phenomenology,groundedtheory,ethnography,andcasestudy.第十三页，共33页。DistinguishthembyanswerstosixcorequestionsWhatdowebelieveaboutthenatureofreality?(ontological)Howdoweknowwhatweknow?(epistemological)Howshouldwestudytheworld?(methodological)Whatisworthknowing?(philosophicaldebatesaboutwhatmattersandwhy)Whatquestionsshouldweask?(disciplinaryandinterdisciplinarydebatesabouttheimportanceofvariousburningquestions,inquirytraditions,andareasofinquiry)Howdowepersonallyengageininquiry?(praxisdebatesaboutinterjectingpersonalexperiencesandvaluesintotheinquiry,includingissuesofvoiceandpoliticalaction)第十四页，共33页。EthnographyWhatisthecultureofthisgroupofpeople?Cultureisthatcollectionofbehaviorpatternsandbeliefsthatconstitutes“standardsfordecidingwhatis,standardsfordecidingwhatcanbe,standardsfordecidinghowonefeelsaboutit,standardsforwhattodoaboutit,andstandardsfordecidinghowtogoaboutdoingit”(Goodenough1971:21-22).Thereisdebateaboutthenatureofitsessence(Douglass2000)aswellasseveraldifferentstylesofethnography,includingtheclassicholisticstyleofBenedictandMead,thesemioticstyleofBoasandGeertz,andthebehavioriststyleoftheWhitings(Sanday1983).Anthropologisthavetraditionallystudiednonliteratecultures.Modernanthropologistsapplyethnographicmethodstothestudyofcontemporarysocietyandsocialproblems,forexample,technologicaldiffusion,globalization,environmentaldegradation,poverty,thegapbetweenrichandpoor,andsocietalbreakdown(Scudder1999);education(SprindlerandHammond2000);addiction(Agar1986;AgarandReisinger1999);andinternationalborderconflicts(Hart1999).Theimportanceofunderstandingculture,especiallyinrelationtochangeeffortsofallkinds,isthecornerstoneof“appliedethnography”asitemergedinmodernsociety(Chambers2000)Sincethe1980s,understandingculturehasbecomecentralinorganizationalstudies(Morgan1986,1989;Pettigrew1983),inmuchorganizationaldevelopmentwork(RaiaandMargulies1985;Louis1983),includingmajoreffortstochangeanorganization’sculture(Schein1985;SilverzweigandAllen1976).Organizationalethnographyhasadistinguishedhistory第十五页，共33页。SocialconstructionandconstructivismHowhavethepeopleinthissettingconstructedreality?Whataretheirreportedperceptions,“truth”,explanations,beliefs,andworld-view?Whataretheconsequencesoftheirconstructionsfortheirbehaviorsandforthosewithwhomtheyinteract?Whatisdefinedorperceivedbypeopleasrealisrealinitsconsequences.GubeandLincoln(1989):Truthisamatterofconsensusamonginformedandsophisticatedconstructors,notofcorrespondencewithobjectivereality.Facthavenomeaningexceptwithinsomevalueframework,hencetherecannotbean“objective”assessmentofanyproposition.Causeandeffectsdonotexistexceptbyimputation….Phenomenacanonlybeunderstoodwithinthecontextinwhicharestudied;findingsfromonecontextcannotbegeneralizedtoanother;neitherproblemsnorsolutionscanbegeneralizedfromonesettingtoanother….Dataderivedfromconstructivistinquiryhaveneitherstatusnorlegitimation;theyrepresentsimplyanotherconstructiontobetakenintoaccountinthemovetowardconsensus.(pp.44-45)第十六页，共33页。phenomenologyWhatisthemeaning,structure,andessenceofthelivedexperienceofthisphenomenonforthispersonorgroupofpeople?Asaphilosophicaltradition,itwasfirstusedinthedevelopmentofarigoroussciencebyphilosopherEdmundH.Husserl(1859-1938).TheworkofAlfredSchutz(1899-1959)wasimportantinfluenceinapplyingandestablishingphenomenologyasamajorsocialscienceperspective(Schutz1977).Nowithasbecomeimportantincertainapproachestopsychotherapy(Moustakas1988,1995).Varyingformscomplicatethepictureevenmore;transcendental,existential,andhermeneuticphenomenologyofferdifferentnuancesoffocus—theessentialmeaningsofindividualexperience,thesocialconstructionofgroupreality,andthelanguageandstructureofcommunication,respectively(Schwandt2001:191-194).Focusonexploringhowhumanbeingsmakesenseofexperienceandtransformexperienceintoconsciousness,bothindividuallyandassharedmeaning.Thisrequiresmethodologically,carefully,andthoroughlycapturinganddescribinghowpeopleexperiencesomephenomenon.Togathersuchdata,onemustundertakein-depthinterviewswithpeoplewhohavedirectlyexperiencedthephenomenonofinterest;thatis,theyhave“livedexperience”第十七页，共33页。SymbolicinteractionWhatcommonsetofsymbolsandunderstandingshasemergedtogivemeaningtopeople’sinteractions?It,asocial-psychologicalapproachcloselyassociatedwithGeorgeHerbertMead(1934)isaperspectivethatplacesgreatemphasisontheimportanceofmeaningandinterpretationasessentialhumanprocessesinreactionagainstbehaviorismandmechanicalstimulus-responsepsychology.Blumerarticulatedthreemajorpremisesasfundamentaltosymbolicinteractionism:Humanbeingacttowardthingsonthebasisofthemeaningsthatthethingshaveforthem.Themeaningofthingsarisesoutofthesocialinteractiononehaswithone’sfellows.Themeaningsofthingsarehandledinandmodifiedthroughaninterpretativeprocessusedbythepersonindealingwiththethingsheorsheencounters.Labelingtheory—thepropositionthatwhatpeoplearecalledhasmajorconsequencesforsocialinteraction—hasbeenaprimaryfocusofinquiryinsymbolicinteraction.第十八页，共33页。Orientationalqualitativeinquiry:feministinquiry,criticaltheory,andqueertheoryasexamplesItbeginswithanexplicittheoreticalorideologicalperspectivethatdetermineswhatconceptualframeworkwilldirectfieldworkandtheinterpretationoffindings.Afeministperspectivepresumestheimportanceofgenderinhumanrelationshipsandsocietalprocessesandorientsthestudyinthatdirection(Guerrero1999b;RibbensandEdwards1998;Maguire1996).Ithasprinciples:AsenseofconnectednessandequalitybetweenresearcherandresearchedExplicitlyacknowledgingandvaluing“women’swaysofknowing”includingintegratingreason,emotion,intuition,experience,andanalyticthoughtParticipatoryprocessesthatsupportconsciousness-raisingandtheresearcherreflexivityEngageinusingknowledgeforchange,especially“knowledgeaboutwomenthatwillcontributetowomen’sliberationandemancipation”Queertheory,anorientationalapproachfocusedonsexualorientation,“tooksocialconstructionistcritiqueoftheunified,autonomousself”Criticaltheoryisconcernedinparticularwithissuesofpowerandjusticeandthewaysthattheeconomy,mattersofrace,class,andgender,ideologies,discourses,education,religionandothersocialinstitutionsandculturaldynamicsinteracttoconstructasocialsystem….inquirythataspirestothenamecriticalmustbeconnectedtoanattempttoconfronttheinjusticeofaparticularsociety….第十九页，共33页。StrategicthemesinqualitativeinquiryDesignstrategiesNaturalisticinquiryEmergentdesignPurposefulDatacollectionandFieldworkstrategiesQualitativedataPersonalexperienceandengagementEmpathicneutralityandmindfulnessDynamicsystemsAnalysisstrategiesUniquecaseorientationInductiveanalysisandcreativesynthesisHolisticperspectiveContextsensitivityVoice,perspective,andreflexivity第二十页，共33页。Naturalisticinquiry

Observationstakeplaceinreal-worldsettingsandpeopleareinterviewedwithopen-endedquestionsinplacesandunderconditionsthatarecomfortableforandfamiliartothem.Inawilderness-basedleadershiptrainingprogram,theonly“unnatural”elementsofresearchers’participationisthat:EveryoneknewIwastakingnotestodocumentwhathappenedAttheendofIconductedopen-ended,conversationalinterviewswithstaff.第二十一页，共33页。EmergentdesignItcannotbegiveninadvance;itmustemerge,develop,unfold…Designflexibilitystemsformtheopen-endednatureofnaturalisticinquiryaswellaspragmaticconsiderations.Doctoralstudentsdoingqualitativedissertationswillusuallybeexpectedtopresentfairlydetailedfieldworkproposalsandinterviewschedulessothattheapprovingdoctoralcommitteecanguidethestudentandbesurethattheproposedworkwillleadtosatisfyingdegreerequirements.第二十二页，共33页。PersonalexperienceandengagementDirectpersonalexperienceandengagement:goingintothefield.Inthinkingabouttheissueofclosenesstothepeopleandsituationsbeingstudied,itisusefultorememberthatmanymajorcontributionstoourunderstandingoftheworldhavecomeformscientists’personalexperiences.Onefindsmanyinstanceswhereclosenesstosourcesofdatamadekeyinsightspossible—Piaget’sclosenesstohischildren,Freud’sproximitytoandempathywithhispatients,Darwin’sclosenesstonature,…Inshort,closenessdoesn’tmakebiasandlossofperspectiveinevitable;distanceisnoguaranteeofobjectivity.第二十三页，共33页。EmpathicneutralityTheidealsofabsoluteobjectivityandvalue-freescienceareimpossibletoattaininpracticeandareofquestionabledesirabilityinthefirstplacesincetheyignoretheintrinsicallysocialnatureandhumanpurposesofresearch.Preferringsuchlanguageastrustworthinessandauthenticitytosupersedethehotbuttontermobjectiveandtheepithetsubjective.Theneutralinvestigatorenterstheresearcharenawithnoaxtogrind,notheorytoprove,andnopredeterminedresultstosupport.Researchstrategiesincludetechniquesforhelpingtheinvestigatorbecomeawareofanddealwithselectiveperception,personalbiasesandtheoreticalpredispositions.Requirethattheinvestigatorcarefullyreflecton,dealwith,andreportpotentialsourcesofbiasanderror.Systematicdatacollectionprocedures,rigoroustraining,multipledatasources,triangulation,externalreviewsandothertechniques.第二十四页，共33页。EmpathyandinsightTheideaofacquiringan“inside”understanding—theactors’definitionsofthesituation—isapowerfulcentralconceptforunderstandingthepurposeofqualitativeinquiry.----ThomasA.Schwandt(2000:102)第二十五页，共33页。Adynamic,developmentalperspectiveAquestionnaireislikeaphotograph.Aqualitativestudyislikeadocumentaryfilm—offersafluidsenseofdevelopment,movement,andchange.第二十六页，共33页。InductiveanalysisandcreativesynthesisBenjaminWhorf’sdevelopmentofthefamousWhorfhypothesis—thatlanguageshapesourexperienceofenvironmentandthatwordsshapeperceptionsandactionsakindoflinguisticrelativitytheory(Schultz1991)—providesaninstructiveexampleofinductiveanalysis.Heinductivelyformulatedhisgeneraltheoryaboutlanguageandperceptionthathasinformedahalf-centuryofcommunicationsscholarship(Lee1996)Theprecisenatureofinductiveanalysisdepends,inpart,onthepurposeoftheanalysisandthenumberandtypesofcasesinastudy.Thefirsttaskistodoacarefuljobindependentlywritinguptheseparatecases.Thencross-caseanalysiscanbegininsearchofpatternsandthemesthatcutacrossindividualexperiences.第二十七页，共33页。HolisticperspectiveGathersdataonmultipleaspectsofthesettingunderstudytoassembleacomprehensiveandcompletepictureofthesocialdynamicoftheparticularsituationorprogram.Greaterattentioncanbygiventonuance,setting,interdependencies,complexities,idiosyncrasies,andcontext.Conductintheanalyticaltraditionof“let’stakeitapartandseehowitworks”.APortuguesecolleaguetoldofdrivinginaremoteareaofhiscountrywhenhecameuponasizableherdofsheepbeingdrivenalongtheroadbyashepherd.Hestruckupaconversationwiththeshepherd.“howmanysheepdoyouhave?”heasked.“Idon’tknow,”respondedtheyoungman.Surprisedatthisanswer,heasked,“howdoyoukeeptrackoftheflockifyoudon’tknowhowmanysheep?Howwouldyouknowifonewasmissing?”.Theshepherdseemedpuzzledbythequestionandexplained,“Idon’tneedtocountthem,IknoweachoneandIknowthewholeflock.Iwouldknowiftheflockwasnotwhole.”第二十八页，共33页。ContextsensitivityAnysingleactfromanysingleperson,putoutofcontext,isdamnable.----ActorKevinSpaceyacceptingthe2000AcademyAwardforBestPerformance.Qualitativeinquiryelevatescontextascriticaltounderstanding.PortraitistSaraLawrence-lightfoot(1997)explainwhyshefindscontext“crucialtodocumentationofhumanexperienceandorganizationalculture”:thesetting—physical,geographic,temporal,historicalcultural,aesthetic—withinwhichactiontakesplace.Contextbecomestheframework,thereferencepoint,themap,theecologicalsphere;itisusedtoplacepeopleandactionintimeandspaceandasaresourceforunderstandingwhattheysayanddo.

第二十九页，共33页。Voiceandperspective:reflexivityPhilosopherandtheologianMartinBuber’s(1923)influentialdistinctionbetween“I-it”and“I-Thou”relationship.I-Thouperspectiveacknowledgesthehumanityofbothselfandothersandimpliesrelationship,mutuality,andgenuinedialogue.Self-awarenesscanbeanassetinbothfieldworkandanalysis.Themethodssectionofaqualitativestudyreportsontheresearcher’straining,preparation,fieldworkprocedures,andanalyticalprocesses.Judgmentsaboutthesignificanceoffindingsarethusinevitablyconnectedtotheresearcher’scredibility,competence,thoroughness,andintegrity.Thosejudgments,preciselybecausetheyareacknowledgedasinevitablypersonalandperspectivedependent,atleasttosomeextent,inviteresponseanddialogue,ratherthanjustacceptanceorrejection.Reflexivityhasenteredthequalitativelexiconasawayofemphasizingtheimportanceofself-awareness,political/culturalconsciousness,andownershipofone’sperspective.Itisadeconstructiveexerciseforlocatingtheintersectionsofauthor,other,text,andworld,andforpenetratingtherepresentationalexerciseitself.(Macbeth2001:35)第三十页，共33