2023年简明语言学教程配套笔记

Chaｐｔｅr1IntroｄuctionＷhatislingｕistics？什么是语言学[A］ThedefinitionｏｆlinguｉsｔicｓLｉnguisticsiｓgeｎeｒaｌlydefinｅdasｔhesｃieｎtiｆiｃstudyoflａnguaｇe(对语言进行的科学研究）Pｒocessoｆlｉｎｇuｉsｔｉｃstudｙ：①Ｃertainliｎｇｕｉsticfaｃtsarｅｏbｓｅｒｖed,genｅralizａtioｎａreｆormed;②Hyｐotｈｅseｓａｒefoｒmulateｄ；③Hyｐothesesareｔestedbyfｕrtｈerobservaｔiｏnｓ；④Ａlinguisｔictheoryisｃonstruｃｔed.[Ｂ]ThｅscoｐeoｆliｎguｉｓticｓGeneralｌinguiｓtiｃs普通语言学：thestuｄyoflａnｇuaｇeasawholｅ从整体研究1.Phonｅticｓ:thegeneraｌｓtｕdyoｆthecharacterｉｓtiｃsofspeechｓｏunds(ｏrthesｔudyofthephonicｍｅdiumｏfｌａnguaｇe)(Hｏｗｓpｅｅchｓoundsaｒｅproducｅdaｎｄcｌassｉfieｄ）2.Ｐhonolｏgy：isesseｎtiａｌlytｈｅｄｅscrｉptｉｏnofｔhesystemｓａndｐattｅrnsofｓpeechsoundsiｎalanｇｕａge.（Howsounｄsformsyｓｔｅmsandfｕnctｉｏｎｔoconveymｅaｎinｇ）3.Mｏrphologｙ:tｈestｕdyoｆｔheｗayiｎwhichｍorｐｈemｅsarｅａrraｎgｅdtｏfｏrmworｄs(ｈowｍorphemesａｒecomｂｉｎｅｄtｏｆormwoｒds)4．Syｎtax：ｔheｓtudyofthoｓerulｅｓthatgｏverｎtheｃombiｎaｔｉonofwordｓtｏｆormpermissｉbleｓeｎtenceｓ(howmorpheｍeｓanｄｗordsareｃombinｅdtofｏrmsenｔencｅｓ)5.Semanticｓ:ｔhestudyｏfmeａninｇinabｓtractｉon6.Prａgmatics：ｔhｅstudｙofmｅaniｎｇinconｔextoｆｕseＳocｉoｌinguisｔｉcs:thesｔｕdyoflａｎｇuａgｅwｉｔｈrefereｎceｔosociｅｔyPsyｃholiｎguistics:thestudyoflangｕageｗithrefeｒeｎcetｏｔheworkiｎgsoｆtｈemindApｐliedlｉnｇuistｉcs:theapplicaｔiｏｎofｌｉnguisticsprincｉplｅsandthｅoriesｔｏlaｎgｕagｅteaｃhingaｎdｌearｎingAｎthropologicallｉnguistics，neurｏｌoｇicaｌｌiｎgｕisｔｉcs;ｍaｔhｅmａｔicａｌlingｕiｓｔiｃs;maｔhｅｍaticallｉｎguｉｓtiｃs;cｏｍpｕｔaｔioｎallｉnguistiｃs[C］Somｅｉmｐortanｔｄistinctｉoｎsinlinｇuistics①Presｃriptivｅvｓ.Deｓcriptive规定性与描写性②Synchrｏｎicvｓ.Diachｒoniｃ共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性)Tｈedｅscriptioｎｏfaｌanguageatsomeｐoinｔinｔime;Ｔhedescriptioｎofalanguagｅasitcｈａｎgｅsｔhrougｈtime．③Spｅechanｄwritｉng言语与文字Sｐｏkenlaｎｇuageisprｉmary,notｔhewritｔｅn④Laｎgueanｄparole语言和言语ProposedbySwｉｓslｉnguistsF.deSａussｅ(ｓocioｌｏgiｃal)Ｌaｎｇue:referstotheａbstｒａｃtlingｕiｓtiｃsysteｍｓｈａredｂyａllｔheｍembersofａspeechｃommｕnity（指一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统)Ｐarｏle：rｅferstotherealizａtiｏｎｏfｌaｎｇueｉnactuａｌｕｓe(指语言在实际运用中的实现）⑤Coｍｐeｔｅnceandpｅｒｆormanｃｅ语言能力与语言运用ProposedｂyｔheAmericanliｎguiｓｔN.Choｍsky(pｓyｃｈologｉcａl)Compeｔｅnce:thｅidealuｓer’sｋnowｌedｇeoftheｒｕlesofhislaｎguage．（抱负的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识）Peｒforｍanｃe:theactualrealｉｚatｉonofthisknowｌedgeｉｎliｎguiｓtiｃscｏｍmuniｃation.(这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现)Ｗhatisｌaｎguagｅ？什么是语言[A]ＴhedｅfinitionｏｆlanｇｕaｇeLanguageisasyｓtemofａrbitｒaryvｏcalｓｙｍｂolｓuseｄforhumancｏmｍｕnicatiｏn.(语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。）a)Sｙstem：cｏｍｂinedｔogeｔheraｃcorｄｉｎgtorules（根据规则组合在一起）ｂ)Arbiｔrａｒy：nｏiｎtｒiｎｓicｃonneｃtionbetwｅｅnalｉnguisｔicsymｂolanｄｗhaｔthesymboｌstandsfor(语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）ｃ)Voｃal:tｈeprimaｒymediｕmｉssounｄｆoｒalｌlanguagｅs(所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）ｄ)Humaｎ:lａnguageishuman-sｐeciｆiｃ（语言是人类所独有的)[B］Dｅsignfeatuｒes(uniqueｐrｏｐｅｒｔiｅｓ):thedefｉningpｒopertiesofhumａnlangｕageｔhaｔdｉstinｇuishitfromanyａniｍａｌｓｙｓtemoｆcｏｍmunicａtioｎ(辨认特性是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特性）①Arbitrａrｉness(任意性）Thereｉｓnoｌogｉcａlornaturalconneｃｔｉoｎbeｔweｅnaliｎguiｓtiｃform(eｉthersouｎdoｒword)anditsmeaning.Whｉlｅlaｎguaｇeｉsarｂitrａｒｙbyｎatuｒe,itisnoteｎtireｌyarbiｔｒａry.(意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系;虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意)a）ｅｃhooｆｔhesoundsofｏｂjｅcｔｓorａcｔivitｉｅｓ：oｎomａtopoeｉcwordｓ(拟声词）b)somecompoundworｄｓ（某些复合词)②Pｒoductivｉty(能产性，发明性)Lａnguａgｅispｒoｄuctivｅiｎthaｔitｍａkeｓｐosｓｉｂlethｅconsｔruｃtionaｎｄinterpretatioｎofnewsignaｌｓbyｉtｓｕsers.(Creatiｖｉtyoroｐen-ｅｎdednesｓ）★③Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Ｌanguageｉｓorganizｅdaｔｔwｏlｅveｌsorlayeｒsｓiｍultaneｏusｌy.Theｌoweroｒbａｓicleｖelisａsｔrｕctureofsｏuｎdｓｗhichaｒemeanｉnｇlｅsｓ.Thehigｈerleｖelｉsmorphｅmeoｒword(douｂｌｅａrtｉcuｌａtiｏｎ）（语言是一个系统,包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低／基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性）④Dispｌaceｍent（跨时空性，移位性)Langｕagecａnbeusedtoｒefｅｒtocｏntextsrｅmovedｆrｏｍｔheimmｅdiａtｅsituatioｎsofｔhｅspeakeｒ(ｒeｆeｒtopasｔaｎｄfuturｅtimeａndｔooｔherｌocations)⑤Cuｌturａlｔransｉｔioｎ(文化传递性）Whilehumancａpacｉtyfoｒlangｕagehasagｅnｅtｉcbasis（everyｏnewａｓｂornwiｔｈtheaｂilｉtｙtoａcquｉｒeaｌaｎguａgｅ)，thedｅtailｓｏfanylanguagesystemａrｅnotgｅneｔicallytransmitted,ｂutｉnｓｔeadｈaｖetoｂetauｇｈtandleａrnt.Tｈｅａｂｏｖe5pｒopertiesmaybeｔakeｎasthｅcorefｅａtｕresｏfｈｕmａnlaｎguaｇe.Ｃhapter2Ｐhonologｙ音位学[A]Thedeｆinitｉonofphonｅｔｉcs（语音学）Phonetiｃｓ:tｈestｕｄyｏfｔhｅpｈｏｎｉcmedｉumofｌａngｕage:itiｓconcernｅｄwｉtｈalｌthesｏuｎdｓｔhaｔocｃuriｎｔhｅｗorld’slanguages.(是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究,它关注语言世界中的所有语音)Arｔicuｌatorｙphoneｔiｃｓ:tｈeｓtｕdyoｆｈｏｗｓpeechｓoｕnｄsａrｅmadｅ,orａｒticulateｄ.(发音语音学）Ａcｏuｓticpｈonｅtｉｃs:ｄeaｌswithｔhephyｓicａlpropertiesofspｅeｃhassounｄwａｖesｉntheaｉr.（听觉语音学)Auｄｉｔｏry(orｐerceptual)ｐhoｎetics:dｅalswiththeｐｅrceｐtion,viatheear,ｏfspeｅchｓoundｓ.（声学语音学）［B]Oｒgaｎｓofspeech（发音器官）Vｏiｃeｌess:清音ｗhentｈevocalcｏｒdsａrespreaｄapａｒt,theairfromthelungｓpａsｓesbetｗeenthemuｎｉｍpeｄｅd.Vｏiced(Ｖoicing):浊音whenthevoｃalｃords声带aredraｗntogeｔher,tｈeaｉｒｆrｏmtheluｎｇsｒeｐeaｔedpushesthemaparｔａsitpａsseｓｔhrougｈ，ｃreatｉｎgaviｂｒatｉonｅｆｆect.ＡｌltheＥnglisｈvｏwels元音ａretyｐicaｌlyvoicｅｄ(voicing).Ｔhｅiｍporｔantcaviｔieｓ:Thepharynｇeaｌｃaviｔｙ咽腔Theoralcavｉtｙ口腔Theｎasaｌcａvity鼻腔其他部位:Lｉｐs唇１,tｅetｈ齿2,teeｔhridge(alｖｅoｌuｓ)齿龈3,hardpalaｔｅ硬腭4，soｆtpaｌaｔｅ(ｖelum)软腭5,uvulａ小舌６，ｔiｐｏftoｎｇuｅ舌尖７,blaｄeoｆtongue舌面8,ｂaｃkoｆtonｇue舌后9,vｏcalcorｄs声带10［Ｃ］Orthograpｈiｃｒｅpresentatiｏnoｆｓｐeechsouｎｄs:Brｏaｄａndnａrrowtraｎscｒｉpｔｉonｓ(语音的正字法表征:宽式/窄式标音）ＩＰA（IntｅrnationalPhonｅｔicAlphａbet/Aｓsｏciation国际语音协会/国际音标)Broadtranｓｃｒiptｉon:tｈｅtrａnscripｔiｏnwiｔhletter－ｓymbｏlsonly（代表字母的符号）Ｎａｒrowtｒaｎscrｉption:thｅtraｎscrｉptｉonｗitｈｌettｅr-symbｏlstｏｇetherwiththediacriｔｉcs(变音符)E.g.：[l]à[li:f]－－àacｌear[l]（nodiacritic)[ｌ]à[ｂｉｌｄ]--àaｄaｒk［l]（~)[l］à［ｈｅｌp]－-àadentａl[l]（)［ｐ］à[ｐiｔ]--àａnａspiｒａtｅｄ[pｈ］（h表达送气)[ｐ]à［spit]--àanunａspirated[p］(ｎodｉａｃｒitic)[n]à[5bQtn]àasyllａbｉcnａsａl［n］(7）［D]ClassｉficａtionofEnglishｃoｎsｏnanｔs（英语辅音的分类）Inteｒmsｏｆｍannｅｒoｆarticuｌatioｎ根据发音方法分（themannerinwｈｉchobｓｔructiｏnｉｓcｒeａted）①Ｓtoｐｓ闭塞音:theoｂsｔructiｏnｉstotaloｒcomplete,andｔｈeｎgｏingabruptｌy[p］／[ｂ]，[t]/[ｄ],[k]／[ｇ]②Fricaｔｉｖeｓ摩擦音:theobｓtrucｔiｏｎｉspａrtｉal,aｎdｔheairｉsfｏrcｅｄｔhrｏｕｇhaｎａrrowpasｓageinthemontｈ[f]/[ｖ],[s］／[ｚ］,[∫]／[з],［θ］/[δ］,[h](ａpproximant)③Ａffrｉcａｔes塞擦音:theｏｂｓtrｕctｉoｎ，ｃompｌetｅatｆiｒｓt,ｉｓｒelｅaｓeｄslｏwlｙasinfricaｔｉｖes[t∫］/［ｄз]④Ｌiquids流音:theａｉrflｏｗisobstｒuｃtedｂｕtｉsallｏｗｅdtｏescapetｈｒｏuｇhｔhｅｐａssagｅｂetweeｎｐａrtorｐartｓｏfthｅｔongueandｔheｒooｆｏftｈemoutｈ[l]àaｌａteｒalsｏund;［r]àretｒｏfleｘ⑤Ｇlidｅs滑音:[w],[ｊ](semi－vowｅｌs）Liqｕｉｄ+gｌidｅs+［h]àapｐｒｏximanｔs⑥Ｎasａls鼻音:theｎasalpａssageisopenｅdbｙｌowｅringtheｓoｆｔｐalatetolｅｔaｉｒpａsｓthroｕghiｔ[ｍ],[n],[η]Byｐｌaceofartiｃuｌaｔion根据发音部位分(thepｌaceｗhｅreｏbstｒuｃｔioniｓcrｅａｔed）①bilaｂial双唇音:ｕｐpeｒandloweｒliｐｓarebｒｏughtｔogethｅrtoｃreatｅobstrｕｃｔions［p]/［ｂ］,[ｗ]à(ｖelar)②lａｂｉｏｄenｔals唇齿音：ｔhelowerｌipandtｈeｕppｅｒtｅeｔh[ｆ]/[v]③deｎtａl齿音:thｅｔipｏfthetｏnｇueandｔheupperｆｒontteeth[θ]/[δ]④alvｅolar齿龈音:theｆrｏnｔparｔofｔｈｅｔonｇueontheａlｖeｏｌarridge[t]/[d],［s］/[z],[n］,［l],[ｒ]⑤pａlatal腭音:ｔongueinthemiｄdｌｅｏftｈepalatｅ[θ]／[δ]，[t∫]／［dз］，[j]⑥velars软腭因:thebaｃkｏfｔhetoｎgueagaiｎｓttｈeｖeluｍ[k]，[ｇ],[η]⑦ｇlottal喉音:thｅglottaliｓｔhesｐacｅｂeｔｗeenthevoｃａlｃordsinｔｈelaryｎｘ[h][E]ClasｓifｉcaｔioｎoｆEｎgｌiｓhvoweｌｓ（英语元音的分类）

①Ｔhehiｇheｓtposｉtionofｔheｔongｕe：froｎt，ｃｅntral,bacｋ;②Ｔｈeｏpennesｓｏｆthemｏuｔh:close，seｍi－ｃlose，seｍi-open,ｏｐｅn;③Tｈeｒoundnｅｓs(sｈape）ｏfｔｈemontｈ(ｔhｅlips):Alltｈｅfroｎｔ,ｃeｎtraｌvｏwelｓareｕｎｒoｕｎdedｖoｗelsｅxceｐt[B]Alltheｂackvowｅｌs,exｃeｐｔ[A:]aｒｅrｏunｄedｖowels④Thelenｇthｏｆｔｈesｏund:ｌoｎgvowelｓ＆shoｒtvｏｗｅlｓLａrｙｎxà（tensｅ)or(ｌax）Monophtｈoｎgs,diphthoｎｇsCaｒdinalvｏwels[F]Thedeｆiｎｉｔiｏnoｆｐhoｎology（音位学)Phoneticｓisinteｒｅsｔedinａllｔhespｅｅchsounｄｓuｓｅdinａllhuｍanlａｎｇｕaｇｅs;howtheyａrｅｐroduced,howtheydifｆerfｒomeacｈｏthｅr,whatphonetiｃfeａｔｕrestheｙpｏsｓess,hｏｗtheｙｃaｎbeclassｉfｉeｄ,etc.Phoｎologｙ,ontｈeｏtherhaｎd，ｉｓｉntｅreｓｔedｉｎthｅsyｓtｅmoｆsoundsofapaｒticｕlaｒｌanguageｓ;itａimｓtodiscｏｖerhｏwｓｐeechsoundｓｉnａlanguagefoｒｍpaｔternｓanｄhｏｗtheseｓoｕnｄsareuseｄtoｃｏnveｙｍeaniｎgｉnlingｕisticｃommｕnicatｉoｎ.[Ｇ]Phoｎe,phonemｅ,andalｌophoｎｅ（音素、音位、音位变体）Phoｎe：aphｏneisaphonetｉcuｎitorsｅgment(因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段)Phoneme:aphoｎemeｉｓaｐhoｎologｉｃaｌuｎｉt；ｉtｉsauｎitｏfdisｔｉｎctivevａｌue,ｉtisａnａbstraｃtunｉt.(音位是一个音位学的单位,并且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Ａllophoｎe：theｄiffeｒeｎtpｈoneswhichcａnrｅｐｒesentａphoneｍeiｎdiｆfeｒeｎtｐhｏnｅticeｎvｉronmentsarecalleｄtheａllｏｐhｏｎesofｔｈａtphoｎｅme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体)[Ｈ]Phｏnemｉccｏntrast,compｌemｅntａｒydisｔrｉbution,mｉnimａｌpaiｒ(音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体)Phonemiccｏntｒaｓt:wheｎtｗoｐhｏnｅmeｓcａnoccurintheｓameeｎvirｏnmentsiｎｔwoｗordｓandtｈeydｉstinguishmeaniｎｇ,theｙ’reinphonemｉccoｎｔraｓt．E．g.pin＆binà／p/ｖs./b/rope&robeà/p／vｓ．/b/(要会判断！）Cｏmplｅmentarｙｄｉstribｕtion:twooｒmｏrｅthanｔwｏaｌlｏｐhｏｎｅsoｆthesaｍephoneｍesareｓａｉdｔobｅincｏmpｌeｍｅntarydistributiｏnｂecauｓetheycannoｔappearaｔtｈeｓamｅtime,ｏrｏccuｒｉndｉfferenｔeｎviroｎｍｅｎt，besiｄestｈeydonotｄistinguishｍｅaniｎg.Miｎｉmａlpaｉｒ:whentwodｉｆfｅreｎtfoｒmsareidenticａｌinｅverywayｅxcepｔfｏｒｏｎesouｎdsegmeｎtwhichoccuｒｓinｔｈesamepｌacｅinthestriｎgs,ｔhetｗoｓouｎdsａresaidtｏｆorｍamiｎimａlpair.Whｅnagｒoｕｐofwordｓcaｎbediｆｆerenｔiａted,ｅａchoｎefｒｏｍtｈeothers,bycｈａngiｎgoneｐhonｅme(ａlｗａysinｔhesaｍeｐosition)，ｔhenalloftheｓeworｄsｃonstituteaｍinｉmalsets.[I]Ｓomerｕlesinpｈｏｎology①seqｕentｉａlrulｅs序列规则Phonｏtａcticsof3coｎｓｏnanｔsoccurｒinginonｓet：假如三个辅音都出现在词首,必须遵循以下三条规则:Ｎｏ1:___/s/第一个音位一定是／s／___voｉcelessｓｔｏps：/p/,/ｔ／,/k／第二个音位一定是／p/,/t/，／k/＿__approxｉｍants:/ｒ/，/l／,/ｗ/,/j／第三个音位一定是／r/,／l／,/w/,/j/Nｏ2:Tｈeafｆricates［t∫],［dз]andthesibilants[s],[ｚ］，［θ],[δ]arenottobeｆoｌlｏwedｂｙanothersiｂilａnｔs.②ａsｓｉmｉlａtionｒulｅs同化规则Co-articｕｌａtionｅｆｆecｔs：tｈeprｏcｅssofmakingｏｎeｓounｄaｌmｏstatthesamｅtimeasthenｅxtiscalｌedｃｏ－artｉculation.Ａｓｓimiｌａtion&elisｉonｅｆfecｔｓ元音省略Aｓｓiｍilatｉon:ｔwopｈonｅmesoccurｉｎseqｕenceandsｏmeaｓpeｃtofonepｈonemeiｓｔakenｏrｃopｉｅｄbytｈｅotｈerE.g.ｎａsaｌizeavｏweｌwhenitisfolｌoweｄbｙaｎａsalｓouｎd.鼻音化现象③deletionrule／Elisioｎ省略规则Deｆinitiｏｎ:theｏmissionoｆaｓouｎdsegmentwhiｃhwouldbeprｅｓeｎtindelibeｒａｔｅpｒonunｃiaｔｉonｏfaｗoｒdinisolａｔionE．ｇ．dｅletea［g]wheｎiｔoｃcｕrｓbeforeafｉnalｎasalｃｏnsonant省略词末鼻辅音前的[g]音[J]Suｐｒasegmenｔalfeａturｅs（超音段特性）①Stｒess重音Ｗoｒdstｒｅsｓ&senｔenceｓｔｒeｓsThestｒeｓsofthｅEnglishcｏmｐounｄｓalwayｓonｔhefirｓtelｅｍent②Tｏne声调Ｔｏｎesarepｉｔchvａｒiaｔions,ｗｈicharecausedbythedｉfｆerinｇratesofvibrationofthevocalcｏrｄs.Pｉｔchｖariaｔionscaｎdistiｎguｉshｍｅaninｇjｕsｔlikｅmｏrphｅmes.像音素同样可以区别意义Toneｌanguａge,ｌikｅChｉneｓe,hasfouｒtones．汉语就是一种典型的声调语言,有四个音调Ｌeｖｅｌ,rｉse,faｌl-rise,fａｌl阴平阳平上声去声③Intｏｎａtioｎ语调Whenpｉtch,strｅｓｓandsoundleｎgtharetiedtothesｅntenceratherthanthewordinisolａtion，theyarｅcollectiｖeｌyknoｗnasintoｎation.Engliｓh:thefoｕｒｂasｉｃtｙpesofintonaｔion,orthｅfｏurｔoneｓ四种语调Thｅfａllｉngtoｎe,therisingtoｎe，ｔｈefall-ｒisingtｏne，aｎdtｈeｒise-falｌtｏne降调声调将声调升降调Ｃhapteｒ３Morpｈolｏｇｙ形态学［A]ＴhedｅｆｉｎitionoｆmｏrphｏlogyＭorpholｏgyｉsａｂrａncｈofｇramｍａrwhiｃhsｔudiestheiｎterｎalstrucｔｕreofwordsandtｈerulesbyｗhichｗoｒｄsａreformｅｄ．（指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究)Morphemｅ:词素themostｂａsicｅlementofmｅaｎing.（意义的最基本要素)(Amiｎｉmalunitofmeａninｇｏrｇｒammaticalfuｎctｉon最小的意义单位或者语法功能)[B]Ｆｒｅeｍorphemes&bouｎdmorpheｍｅs（自由词素和黏着词素)Ｆｒeｅmoｒｐhｅmeｓ：cａnstａｎdbythｅmselｖesａｓｓｉnｇｌｅｗordsàLｅxicａlmorpｈemes[n.ａ.v]&ｆunctｉｏｎａlmｏrphemes[cｏｎｊ．ｐｒeｐ.n.]Ｂouｎｄmｏrｐheｍｅs:ｃａnnotnoｒmａlｌystanｄalone,ｂutwｈｉｃhａretｙpicallyatｔａcｈｅｄtｏanotherｆｏrｍàDerivationａlmorpｈeｍｅｓ派生词素àaffｉx词缀(sufｆix,ｉｎfix,preｆix)+rｏｏt后缀中缀前缀+词根àＩｎflectionａlｍorphemeｓ曲折词素à8typeｓofinｆlecｔｉonalｍorphｅｍesiｎEｎgｌishNoun+-’s,-s[possessivｅ所有格;plｕraｌ复数]Verb+-s,-ｉｎg，-ed,-en[3rdｐeｒsonpresentsinｇuｌａr第三人称单数;presｅntpartｉciple现在分词;pasｔｔense过去式,ｐaｓtpａｒｔiciｐｌe过去分词]Adｊ+-er,－est［comｐaraｔiｖe比较级;superｌａtive最高级][C]Deｒｉvａtionalvs.Infｌectioｎal派生(范畴/语类)和曲折(语法标志）Inｆlecｔiｏnalmｏrphemesｎeｖerchangethegraｍmａticalcaｔegoｒｙofaword只表达语法标志(时态、数、格）Inｆleｃtionalmｏrpｈeｍesiｎflｕｅnceｔhewholecatｅgory词的范畴;ＤeｒｉvationａlmorphemesarｅopposｉtｅOｒdｅｒ:rｏoｔ(ｓtem)+derivatｉoｎａl+ｉnflectional词根/词干+派生+曲折[D]ＭorｐhologｉｃalRules形态学规则（词的构成方式à词素是如何组合成为词）Ｎ.＋lyàa.;A．+lyàａdｖ.;ｇuａrdovergeneraliｚatiｏｎ［E]Moｒpｈｓandａlloｍorｐｈs语素和语素变体Morｐhs:thｅａctｕａlformsuｓedtorealizｅmｏrｐheｍesAllｏｍorpｈs：asｅtofｍorphｓ,alloｆｗｈiｃhaｒｅversionsofoｎｅmoｒpheｍe,aｍorpheｍemａyhａveａlterｎateｓhaｐesorｐｈonｅtｉcfｏrｍs．ｅ．g．maｐ--－-maps[s]ｄog－--－doｇs[z]ｗatｃh---－watcｈes[ｉz］ｍｏuｓe－--－mice[aｉ]ox－－-－oｘeｎ[n]toｏｔｈ－--－teetｈsheep--－－ｓheｅpEachoftheｕnderliｎedpartisｃalledanaｌlomorphofpｌuｒalmoｒpｈemｅ．［F]Ｗｏrd-formａtionｐrｏcｅｓs(构词法）①Cｏinageàｔheｉnventionｏｆtoｔａllynewｔｅrms(发明全新的词)②Ｂorｒoｗingàthetaｋｉngoveｒoｆwordｓforｍｏｔhｅｒｌanｇuages③Compoundingàajoinｉｎgｏftwoseｐaｒaｔewordstｏproduｃeａsingleform（组成复合词)④Ｂｌendiｎｇàtａｋingoｖerthebeginｎingofoｎeｗｏｒｄandjｏiningittotheenｄofothｅrword⑤Clippinｇàawordofmoｒethanonesyllablereduceｄtoasｈoｒtｅrforｍ⑥Ｂackformatiｏnàaprocesｓbｙwhichｎewｗorｄsareforｍeｄbyｔakinｇawaythesuffixofanexｉstingｗｏrd⑦Conｖersionàcategoryｃhanｇe,ｆuｎctiｏｎalshｉft⑧Acｒonｙmsàｎｅwwｏｒdsarefｏrｍedfrｏmtheｉnｉtiａllｅttersｏfａseｔofｏtｈerwords⑨Dｅrｉvatｉonàthenewｗｏrdｓａreｆormｅdbytheadｄitｉoｎofaｆｆixesｔotｈeｒoｏts,ｓtems,orwords（添加词缀）⑩Abｂreｖiａtionàasｈｏｒｔeｎｅdformｏfａworｄorphrasewｈichrｅpresentｓｔhecomｐletefoｒm（缩短原词)Chapteｒ4Syntax句法学[A］ThedｅfiｎitionｏｆsyntaxSyｎtaｘ:Ａbrａnｃhofliｎgｕistｉcｓｔｈatｓtｕdieshowwｏrdｓarecoｍbiｎedtoformsｅｎteｎcesaｎｄrulesthatgoverntｈeformａtiｏnofｓentences（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）[Ｃ］TypeｓofseｎｔencｅsＳｉｍplesentｅnce简朴句:cｏnsｉsｔｓｏfasｉnglｅｃlausewｈiｃhｃｏｎtaiｎsaｓubjectａndaｐredｉcａteandｓtandsaloneasitsｏｗnsenｔence．Coorｄiｎatｅ（Coｍｐound）sｅnｔｅnce并列(复合）句：ｃontainstwoｃlauseｓjoineｄbｙaliｎkingｗorｄｃａlledcｏordinatingcoｎjuncｔｉons，ｓuchas“aｎd”,“by”,“or”…Ｃｏmpｌexseｎtｅnｃe复杂句:cｏntainstwo,oｒmore,cｌauｓes,oｎｅoｆwhichisｉncorporateｄintotheotherEmｂeddedclause子句ßàmaｔrixclaｕse主句①suｂｏrdinatoｒ②ｆunｃtｉoｎsaｓagraｍmaticaｌunit③maybecompｌeｔe[Ｂ］Somecateｇoriｅs(范畴）Synｔactｉccategoｒｉes:refeｒｔoawoｒdoraphraseｔhatｐｅrformsaｐaｒtｉcｕlaｒgｒammaｔicalｆunctｉoｎ,ｓucｈａｓthｅsｕｂｊecｔortheprｅｄicａｔe句法范畴Ｌexiｃalcategories:(parｔｓoｆspeecｈ)词汇范畴Ｍaｊorlexicalｃaｔegories(oｐenｃaｔegoｒies）:N.Ｖ.Ａdj.Aｄv．Minｏrｌｅxicaｌcateｇｏrieｓ(cｌｏsedｃateｇｏｒies):Deｔ.Auｘ.Preｐ.Ｐron.Conj.Int．Ｐhrasａlcａtｅgoｒｉeｓ:NP，ＶP,PP,AP短语范畴[Ｃ]CombinatioｎalrｕleｓＡresmaｌlｉｎnumberàYｉeｌdａllthｅｐossiｂlｅｓｅnｔｅncesRuleouttheimpossibleones①phrasｅｓｔrｕcｔureｒules（rewriteｒules)（短语结构规则)SàNPVＰ（Asentenceｃoｎsｉｓtｓｏf,orisrewrittenａs,aｎounphraseａndaverbphrase）NPà(ｄet.限定词)(Ａdj.)N(PP）(S)…“à”：涉及/分为VＰà(ｑual.修饰词)V(ＮP)(POP）(S)…“()”:内部的成分可以省略ＡPà(ｄeｇ．限度词)Ａ(PP）(S)…“…”:可以选择附加其他补语PPà(deｇ.)PＮＰ…②X-bａｒtheｏrｙHeａdàanobliｇatorywｏrdthatgivｅrsthephraｓｅitsnaｍeXPorX-ｐhraseXPà(Ｓｐecifier)X(cｏmplｅｍeｎt)Formｕｌa:X”àSpｅｃＸ’Ｘ-bａrtheｏry(X-ｂａrschema)X’àXｃompl[D]Traｎｓformationalｒuｌes转换规则àD-ｓtructｕreandS-ｓｔructｕre深层结构和表层结构Dｅｅpstrｕcｔure:theｓtruｃｔurｅthatｃorresｐｏｎｄsmostcloselｙtotｈemeaｎinｇfuｌgrｏuｐｉnｇoｆwordｓ.Itisａbstraｃｔ,wｈicｈｇiveｓtｈｅｍeaniｎgoｆasenｔenceａndwhicｈｉｔselfisｎｏtｐｒｏnounceable．Ｓｕrfacestruｃtｕre:linｅaｒaｒrangeｍｅnｔｏfwordsaｓthｅyarepronouncｅd.Asｕrfacesｔｒuctureisrelativｅlyｃｏncｒｅte,andgiｖesｔhefｏrｍoｆasentenceaｓｉtisusｅｄinｃoｍｍuｎｉcatiｏn.Twolｅvｅlsｏfsｙntacｔicreprｅseｎtaｔionofasenｔenｃestrｕcｔｕre：OnethatexｉstｓbeforemｏveｍenｔtakeｓｐlaｃｅThｅotherｔhaｔｏccursａfteｒmoｖeｍenttakesplaｃeＦｏｒmallinｇuisｔiceｘｐlｏratｉon：Ｄ－stｒuctｕｒe:pｈｒaｓｅｓtructｕrerulｅs＋ｌeｘiｃonSentencｅａｔtｈｅleveｌｏfD-stｒucｔureTheapｐlicａtｉonｏfsyntacｔicmoｖeｍeｎtruleｓtｒansformsａsenｔｅncefromD－ｓtrｕctureｌeｖelｔｏS-structurｅｌevelＴransformatiｏｎal-ｇeｎerativelineofａnalysis[E]SyntacticRelａtionsＳequｅntial（syｎtaｇmaｔiｃ）reｌaｔiｏｎｓ组合关系TheｌiｎｅａrorｄeｒiｎｇoftheworｄsａndｔhｅpｈraseｓwiｔｈinasenteｎcｅSubstitutiｏnal（parａdiｇmatic）ｒelatｉons(聚合关系）Ifｔｈewordsorpｈｒasｅsinaｓentencecanbeｒｅpｌacｅdbywordsａndｐhrａsｅｓｏutｓidethesentenceandtherｅsuｌｔingｓentenceｉsｓtiｌlｇramｍaｔical，tｈenwesayｔherepｌacinｇｆｏrmsandrｅｐlaceｄｆormshaｖepaｒadigmatｉcrｅｌatiｏｎｓ.［F]ImｍediａteＣonsｔitｕｅntAnalysis(ICＡnaｌｙｓｉｓ)ICAnalｙsisistｏsimplｙdividｅasｅntencｅｉntoitsｃonsｔitｕｅnteleｍentsｗiｔhoutatfirｓtｋnowｉngｗhattｈeseeｌｅｍｅntsare.Ｔhｅprinciｐleistｈatweｔakeaseｎｔｅｎcｅanｄcutitｉntotwoandthｅnｃｕｔtheｓeｐaｒｔｓiｎｔotｗｏaｎdcoｎｔiｎｕewiththissegmentatioｎuntilｗereａchthｅsｍallestｇrａmmaticaｌunｉt,themorｐhｅｍｅsLａbeｌedICanalysisｓyｎtactｉｃcategoｒｉescritｅrｉaiｎjｕdgingsyntactiｃcaｔｅgoｒies:1）ｍｏｒphologicalｆｅａturｅs(inflectionalandｄerivationaｌaffixestheytａkｅ）（numbｅr,ｃasegｅｎｄeretc.)2)syntaｃｔｉccoｎtｅｘtsinwhicｈｔhｅlｉnguiｓtｉcforｍscaｎｏｃｃurCatｅgｏrytheﻩｄetermiｎｅr(Ｄet.）boyｎoun(n.)oftｅnｑuａｌifieｒplａys ﻩvｅrｂ（ｖ.)aDet.ｖerydegｒｅewoｒd(Deg)sｍallmｏdifiｅｒｂallｎ.muｓt,shoｕld…auｘiｌiarｙ(Aux.）aｎd,ｂut,ｏｒ…conｊuｎction(Ｃon.)[G]ＴhｅｈierarｃhicalstructｕreofseｎtenceAsenｔenceｃanbeａｎａlyzedinｔoconsｔitｕenｔs.Conversely，cｏｎｓｔｉtuentsatｄifferenｔｌeｖelsｃancombinｅtofｏrmｉncrｅａsｉｎglylargerｕnｉts.SｅｎtencesaｒeanalyzeｄintoclausｅsareaｎalyzedintｏphｒasｅsａrｅanalyzｅdintowｏrｄsａreａnaｌｙzedinｔomoｒｐｈemeｓsentenｃeｓsenteｎcesareｕseｄtobuilｄclausｅsareusedtｏbuｉldｐhrasｅｓaｒeuｓｅdtｏｂｕildwordsａreusedtoｂｕildmorｐhemesSotｒadｉtｉonａｌly,ｓentenｃesａreaｓsumｅｄtoｂemadeｏfinｄividuａlwordsinalineａｒｄｉreｃtionChaｐteｒ5Ｓemaｎtｉcs语义学［A］ThedeｆinitｉonoｆsｅmantiｃsSemanｔics:ｔhestudyofmeanｉngfromtｈelingｕiｓticｐoｉnｔofviｅｗ(对意义的研究）[B]Someviｅwsconcerniｎgthestudyofmｅaｎinｇ关于意义研究的一些观点①theｎaｍingtheｏry命名论②thｅｃonｃeptｕalistｖiｅｗ概念论Ｔhoｕgｈt／rｅｆｅrenceàcoｎｃept思想/指称

Sｙｍｂoｌ／Fｏrm(wordｓ）符号/形式Ｒefｅrenｔà(ｒeａlobject)所指③contexｔｕａlｉsm：ＪohｎFirtｈ语境论④behavｉoriｓｍàBlｏoｍfield行为主义论bａsedonｃonｔextｕaliｓtviｅwS:ｓtimulusr:responsｅJiｌｌJａｃkS--－---－-－ｒ………ｓ-－----－－-R（ｔheｓmａlllｅttersr,sàsｐeeｃｈ)（theｃapｉtalizedletｔerＲ,Ｓàｐracticａlevｅnts)[C]Ｓenｓeaｎdrefｅrencｅ（意义和指称）Seｎse：isｃｏncerｎedwｉthｔheｉnhｅrentmeaningofthelinguｉstｉcfｏrm,ａbｓtractanddｅ-conteｘtuaｌized.(重要涉及语言形式的固故意义，是抽象,不与语境相关的)Ｒeｆｅｒencｅ:meanswhａtaｌingｕisｔicforｍreｆerstointhｅｒeal,ｐｈysicalworｌd;itdｅａlｓwithｔherelationsｈｉpｂeｔweｅnｔｈeliｎguisｔicｅｌemｅntanｄthenon－linｇｕｉsticwｏrldofeｘperiｅnce（指语言形式在现实物质世界中的事物，是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系)MoｖｉｎgstａｒIoｎｃｅwasbｉttｅｎbyadog.MｏｒnｉngstａrMｉndｙou.Tｈereisadogoｖerｔheｒe.[D]Mａjorsenｓerｅlａtｉｏns(重要的意义关系)①synｏnｙmｙ同义现象àｔhesameｎeｓsorcloｓeｓiｍilaｒityofmｅanｉｎga.dialecｔａｌｓｙnoｎyms方言同义词——syｎonymsuｓedindｉfferｅｎtｒｅgｉoｎaldialects(美式/英式英语）b．sｔｙｌisｔicsyｎonyms文体同义词——synonymｓdifferingiｎstｙｌe(问题、正式度不同)c.sｙnoｎｙmsthatdifferiｎtheiremotｉｖeorｅvaluativeｍｅaning情感或评价意义不同的同义词(褒贬义）ｄ.cｏｌｌｏcaｔiｏnalsynoｎymｓ搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法）e.sｅmanticallyｄifferｅntsynoｎyｍs语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同）②poｌysemy多义现象——onewｏrdthａｔhaｓmoｒethanｏnｅｒelaｔedmeaning③homｏnｙmｙ同音异义Hｏmoｐｈones:ｗhenｔwｏworｄsareideｎticａlｉnsounｄ同音异义发音同样Hｏmograｐhs:whenｔwowｏrｄsareidenticalｉｎsｐelling同形异义拼写同样Ｃoｍpletｅhoｍonyms:wheｎtwowordｓａreiｄenticａlｂothｉnspｅｌlingandｉｎSouｎd完全同音异义词④hyponymy下义关系——ｉnclｕsiveｎess包含关系Thewordwｈichismoregenｅralinｍeaningiscａlｌedthesｕｐerorｄｉnａtｅ.上坐标词Ｔhewordwhichiｓｍoreｓpeｃｉficｉnmｅａｎｉngｉscａlｌedhyponｙｍ.Ｃo-hyponym下坐标词⑤antｏｎymy反义词——oｐpｏsitenessＧｒadabｌeaｎtonｙｍs等级反义词(有中间词，限度不同）Compleｍｅntarｙaｎtonyms互补反义词（两个极端deａd/aｌive,mａｌe/female)Rｅlationaｌopｐositｅs:paｉrsoｆworｄsｔhatexhibｉtthereｖｅrsaｌoｆaｒｅlａｔｉoｎshｉｐbｅｔweenitems（关系反义词)［E]Sensereｌationsbetｗeｅｎｓentｅnces句子之间的意义关系①XｉsｓynonymｏuswｉtｈＹ（X与Ｙ同义）假如Ｘ真,Y真；Ｘ假，Y也假②XisｉnconｓiｓtentｗithY（X与Y不一致)假如X真,Y假;X假，Ｙ真③ＸｅｎｔailｓY(YｉsａnentaｉｌｍentofＸ)（X蕴含Y(Y是X的一个含义)）假如Ｘ真,Y一定真（去过法国à一定去过欧洲)假如Ｘ假,Ｙ有也许真（没去过法国à去/没去过欧洲欧洲)④XpreｓuｐposesY(YiｓaｐrｅｒeqｕiｓｉteofX）(X预设Ｙ（Y是Ｘ的先决条件)）假如Ｘ真，Y一定真假如X假,Y仍然真⑤ＸisacoｎtrａｄictｉoｎX自我矛盾(总是假)⑥XiｓsemanticallyaｎｏmａlousＸ语义反常[F］Coｍponentiａｌaｎalyｓisàａwaytｏanaｌyzeｌexｉcaｌｍeaninｇ(成分分析法à分析词汇意义的方法）Semaｎticfｅatｕrｅｓ语义特性:themeaｎingofawｏｒdｃａnbediｓsecteｄintoｍｅaningｃomponentｓ,orsemａnticfeatｕreｓPhｏｎemｅàdistiｎctiｖeｆeatures区别特性Ｓｈowhowｔhosewordsarｅrelａteｄiｎmeaning[G］PredicatｉoｎanａlｙsisàawａytoaｎaｌｙzeｓeｎtenｃemeaｎinｇpropｏsedbyBrｉｔishlinguiｓtG．Leecｈ(述谓结构分析法à分析句子意义的方法)①tｈemeａniｎgofａsentｅncｅｉｓnoｔｔhesuｍtotａl(ofｔheｍｅanｉnｇsofalｌｉtscomponentｓ）②Gramｍatｉcaｌmeaｎｉｎｇandsemantｉｃｍeａｎing涉及语法意义和语义意义Grammａｔiｃality语法规范性sｅlｅctionalresｔｒictiｏｎs选择限制规则Sｅmanticaｎaｌyｓｉs:Ｐrｅdicatｉon（basicunit)述谓结构àtheabstrａｃtｍｅaniｎｇofｔheseｎtｅｎcｅ句子的抽象意义Argumeｎt（ｓ)变元(名词成分)predicate谓词（谓语)Logicaｌpａrticipant(ｓ)Sthｓａidabｏｕtanａrguｍｅntｏｒsｔaｔesthelogiｃalrｅlatｉonlｉnｋｉngthearｇumeｎt(s)inasenteｎｃeTｈepｒedicatｅcanbeｒeｇａｒdedａsｔｈeｍainelement.Tomsmokeｓ．àTOＭ(ＳMOKE)àonｅ-plaｃepreｄicationKidslｉkeappｌes.àＫID，AＰＰLE（LＩＫE）àtwo-pｌacepｒｅdicａtioｎIt’sraｉning.à(BERＡIN)àno-ｐlaceprｅdｉcationChａptｅｒ6Prａgmaｔicｓ语用学[A]ＴｈeｄefinitioｎofpragmatiｃsPragmatics:thｅstuｄyofｈｏｗspｅａkersofａlaｎｇuagｅusｅsenｔenｃestｏeffecｔsucceｓsfｕlcommuniｃation(是研究某一语言的使用者如何使用句子而达成成功交际）Wｈａtｅssentiaｌlydiｓtｉnｇuisｈsｅmanticｓandpragmaｔicsiswhetｈerinｔｈeｓtｕdyｏｆmｅaningthecoｎｔexｔofuseｉsconsidered．（在意义的研究中是否考虑到了语境的音素)Ifitｉsnot，itissｅmａntｉcs.Ｉｆｉtis,itｉｓpragｍaticｓ.［B]Context语境/上下文Itｉsｇenｅrallyconｓideredascoｎstｉtutedbytｈekｎoｗleｄgeｓharedbｙtｈespeakerａｎdtheｈearer．（由说话人和听话人共有的知识构成)[C]Ｓｅnｔenｃemeａningandｕｔｔerａncemeaning★句子意义和话语意义e.g.Thedoｇisｂａrkinｇ.Ifwetakeitasａgｒａmmａticalunitandｃonsidｅrｉtaｓａsｅlf-coｎtａinｅduniｔinisolａtion,ｔhenweｔreatitasaｓentenｃe.假如把它当做一个语法单元，认为它是一个独立于语境之外的单元，那就当做句子Ｉfweｔakeitａssｏmeｔhiｎgasｐeakerｕtｔersinaｃerｔaｉnsｉtuatｉｏnwithａｃeｒtａinｐurｐose,ｔhｅnwearｅtreatingｉtaｓanutterancｅ．假如把它当做是说话人在特定场景带着特定目的所说的话，那就当做话语Meaｎiｎｇofａsentｅnceiｓabｓtract,andde-ｃonｔｅxtuａlizｅd.句子的意义是抽象的，脱离语境的Meａningoｆａnutｔeraｎｃeiｓｃｏncretｅ,aｎｄｃontexｔuａlｉzed.话语的意义是具体的，依赖语境的Utｔeranｃｅisｂaｓedonsenｔeｎcｅｍeaniｎｇ;iｔistherｅalizaｔｉonoｆthｅaｂｓｔｒaｃtmeaｎiｎgｏfaseｎtenｃeｉｎarｅalｓitｕationofcｏmｍunicａtioｎ，orsｉmｐlyiｎａcontext.话语的意义基于句子的意义之上，它是句子的抽象意义在交际的真实场景中的体现[D]ＳpeechＡｃtTheｏry(言语行