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EnglishLexicology(英语词汇学)1.EnglishlexicologyaimsatinvestigatingandstudyingthemorphologicalstructuresofEnglishwordsandwordequivalents,theirsemanticstructures,relations,historicaldevelopment,formationandusages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。2.EnglishLexicologyiscorrelatedwithsuchlinguisticdisciplinesasmorphology(形态学),semantics(语义学),etymology(词源学),stylistics(文体论)andlexicography(词典学)Chapter1--Basicconceptsofwordsandvocabulary1.Word(词的定义):Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensoundandmeaningandsyntacticfunction.(1)aminimalfreeformofalanguage(2)asoundunity(3)aunitofmeaning(4)aformthatcanfunctionaloneinasentence词语是语言最小的自由形式,拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。2.Soundandmeaning(声音与意义):almostarbitrary,“nologicalrelationshipbetweenthesoundwhichstandsforathingoranideaandtheactualthingandideaitself”3.Soundandform(读音和形式):不统一的四个因素(1)theEnglishalphabetwasadoptedfromtheRomans,whichdoesnothaveaseparatelettertorepresenteachother(2)thepronunciationhaschangedmorerapidlythanspellingovertheyears(3)someofthedifferencewerecreatedbytheearlyscribes(4)theborrowingsisanimportantchannelofenrichingtheEnglishvocabulary(5)printing、standardization、dictionary—OldEnglish,Thespeechofthetimewasrepresentedverymuchmorefaithfullyinwritingthanitistoday.古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语—ThewrittenformofEnglishisanimperfectrepresentationofthespokenform。英语的书写是发音形式不完善的代表4.Whatisvocabulary?(1)Totalnumberofthewordsinalanguage一个语言的单词综合(2)Wordsusedinaparticularhistoricalperiod特殊历史时期使用的单词(3)Allthewordsofadialect,abook,adiscipline...某个方言,书籍,学科中的所有单词5.ClassificationofEnglishWords:Byusefrequency:basicwordstock&nonbasicvocabularyBynotion:contentwords&functionalwordsByorigin:nativewords&borrowedwords6.Thebasicwordstock(基本词汇):isthefoundationofthevocabularyaccumulatedovercenturiesandformsthecommoncoreofthelanguage.ThoughitconstituteasmallpercentageoftheEV,itisthemostimportantpartofvocabulary.基础词是几世纪积累的词汇的基础,构成语言的核心。尽管基础词占英语词汇比例小,它仍然是最重要的组成部分。7.TheFundamentalFeaturesoftheBasicWordStock(基本词汇的基本特性):1)All-Nationalcharacter(全民通用性mostimportant)2)Stability(相对稳定性relative)3)Productivity(多产性aremostlyrootwordsormonosyllabicwords)4)Polysemy(多义性)5)Collocability(可搭配性)8.nonbasicvocabulary(1)Terminology(术语)(2)Jargon(行话)(3)slang(俚语)(4)Argot(暗语)(5)Dialectalwords(方言)(6)Archaisms(古语)(7)Neologisms(新词语):Neologismsmeansnewly-createdwordsorexpressions,orwordsthathavetakenonnewmeanings.(email)9.—Terminologyconsistsoftechnicaltermsusedinparticulardisciplinesandacademicareasasinmedicine、inmathematics、inmusic、ineducation.涉及特定学科的技术术语和学术领域—Jargonreferstothespecializedvocabulariesbywhichmembersofparticulararts,sciences,tradesandprofessionscommunicateamongthemselves用于特定的词汇,通过特定艺术,科学,商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之间交流—Slangbelongstothesub-standardlanguage,acategorythatseemstostandbetweenthestandardgeneralwordsincludinginformalonesavailabletoeveryoneandin-groupwordslikecant,jargon,andargot俚语粗话属于低等语言,处在标准通用语言,(涉及每人用的非正式词汇)和团队内部语言涉及cant(任何下等团队的行话),jargons,argot10.slangiscolourful,blunt,expressiveandimpressive俚语生动,直率,印象深刻并且感人11.Certainwordsarelabeled'slang'notbecausetheirappearanceorpronunciationbutbecauseoftheirusage特定词被标示为“俚语”不是由于他们的写法和发音,而是由于他们的用法12.Contentwords/notionalwords实词Contentwordsdenoteclearnotionsandthusareknownasnotionalwords.Theyincludenouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsandnumerals内容词表达清楚的概念,由于被认为是概念词。他们涉及名词,动词。形容词,副词和数词13.functionalwords/emptywords虚词Functionalwordsdonothavenotionsoftheirown.Therefore,theyarealsocalledemptywords.Astheirchieffunctionistoexpresstherelationbetweennotions,therelationbetweenwordsaswellasbetweensentences,theyareknownasformwords.Prepositions,conjunctions,auxiliariesandarticlesbelongtothiscategory.功能词没有他们自己的概念。因此,他们也称作“空词”。由于他们的重要功能是去表达概念间的关系,词语间和句子间的关系,他们被认为是“结构词”。介词,连词,辅助词和冠词属于这一类14.区别:Contentwords,whichconstitutethemainbodyoftheEnglishvocabulary,arenumerous,andthenumberisevergrowingwhereasfunctionalwords,whichmakeupaverysmallnumberofthevocabulary,remainstable.However,functionalwordsdofarmoreworkofexpressioninEnglishonaveragethancontentwords内容词,构成了英语词汇的主体,是数量多的。并且那数量还在增长,然而,功能词,只占词汇的很少一部分,保持稳定。然而,功能词比内容词在表达上做了更多的工作15.Nativewords:1.风格中性2.使用频繁(1)WordsofAnglo-Saxonoriginaresmallinnumber,amountingtoroughly50,000to60,000盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少,大约在50000到60000之间(2)theyformthemainstreamofthebasicwordstock他们构成了基本词汇的主流(3)standatthecoreofthelanguage处在语言的核心16.Wordstakenoverfromforeignlanguagesareknownasborrowedwordsorloanwordsorborrowingsinsimpleterms从外国带来的词被认为是“借词”“借代词”或者“所借的”17.DenizensarewordsborrowedearlyinthepastandnowwellassimilatedintotheEnglishlanguage.同化词是过去初期借词,现在很好的同化进了英语Aliensareborrowedwordswhichhaveretainedtheiroriginalpronunciationandspelling非同化词是保存了原始发音和拼写的借词Translation-loansarewordsandexpressionsformedfromtheexistingmaterialintheEnglishlanguagebutmodelledonthepatternstakenfromanotherlanguage.翻译借词是从英语中的现有材料中取材构成,但是模仿其他语言的构成方式。Semantic-loans.Wordsofthiscategoryarenotborrowedwithreferencetotheform.Buttheirmeaningsareborrowed.借义词这类词不是参考形式借来,但是他们的意义是借来的。Chapter2thedevelopmentoftheEnglishVocabularyTheEnglishlanguageisnotthelanguageoftheearlyinhabitantsoftheBritishIsles.英语不是英国群岛上原住民的语言。2.TheIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamily(印欧语系)TheEightGroupsinIndo-EuropeanFamilyofLanguages(8大印欧语群)TheEasternset:(1)TheBalto-slavicGroup(波罗的-斯拉夫语族):Prussian,Lithuanian,Polish,Czech,Bulgarian,SlovenianandRussian普鲁士语,立陶宛语,波兰语,捷克语,保加利亚语,斯洛文尼亚语,俄语(2)TheIndo-IranianGroup(印度-伊朗语族):Persian,Bengali,Hindi,Romany波斯语,孟加拉语,印地语,吉普赛语(3)TheArmenianGroup(亚美尼亚语族):Armenian.(4)TheAlbanianGroup(阿尔巴尼亚语族):Albanian.TheWesternset:(5)TheHellenicGroup(古希腊语族):Greek.(6)TheItalianGroup(意大利语族):Latin,Romancelanguages(French,Italian,Spanish,portuguese,Romanian)etc.五种拉丁语言,就是葡萄牙语,西班牙语,法语,意大利语,罗马尼亚语都属于意大利语系(7)TheCelticGroup(凯尔特语族):Scottish,Irish,Welsh,Breton,etc苏格兰语,爱尔兰语,威尔士语,布里多尼语等(8)TheGermanicGroup(日耳曼语族):German,Dutch,FlemishandEnglish,Scandinavian(Norwegian,Icelandic,DanishandSwedish)etc.,德语,荷兰语,弗兰德语和英语(挪威语,冰岛语,丹麦语和瑞典语)这些都被称作斯堪的纳维亚语言3.AhistoricaloverviewoftheEnglishVocabulary(1)ThefirstinhabitantswereCelts.TheirlanguageswereCeltic.现在所指最早的居民是凯尔特人,他们的语言仍然是印欧语系的另一分支凯尔特语的方言(2)ThesecondmajorlanguageknowninEnglandwastheLatinoftheRomanLegions.In55-54B.C.,theRomansinvadedtheBritishIsles英国的第二种重要语言是罗马军团的拉丁语,在公元前55到54年,罗马人入侵英伦群岛(3)CelticmadeonlyasmallcontributiontotheEnglishvocabulary凯尔特语只对英语词汇有很小的奉献4.OldEnglish(450-1150)(vocabulary50,000to60,000)=Anglo-Saxon(1)Latin-speakingRomanmissionariesundercametospreadChristianityinBritainattheendofthe6thcentury.在6世纪末期,拉丁语的罗马传教士来传播基督教(2)usersofOldEnglishdidnotborrowasheavilyfromLatinorotherlanguagesinthisperiodastheydidlater古代英语的使用者并不像他们后来做的那样大量从拉丁和其他语言借词(3)Thecommonpracticewastocreatenewwordsbycombiningtwonativewords.handbook通常情况用组合两个本地词的形式来发明新词(4)manyScandinavianwordscameintotheEnglishlanguage许多斯堪的纳维亚词汇进入了英语(5)itwasahighinflectedlanguagewithcomplexendings它是高度转折的语言正象现代的德语5.MiddleEnglish(1150-1500):retainesmuchfewerinflections(1)TheNormanconqueststartedacontinualflowofFrenchwordsintoEnglish诺曼征服开始了法国词汇不断进入英语的洪流(2)Thesituationofthreelanguages(Latin,French,English)existingsimultaneouslycontinuedforoveracentury三种语言并存的情况存在了一百数年(3)Britainhadtraderelationswiththelowcountries,especiallyHolland英国和低等国家有贸易关系,特别是荷兰(4)MiddleEnglishretainedmuchfewerinflections中世纪英语保存更少的转折IfwesaythatOldEnglishwasalanguageoffullendings,MiddleEnglishwasoneofleveledendings.假如我们说老英语是一种拥有完整结尾的语言,中世纪英语是一个水平结尾。6.ModernEnglish(1500-uptonow):(1)Early(1500-1700)(2)late(1700-uptothepresent)(1)IntheearlyperiodofModernEnglish,knownastheRenaissance,manynewwordstakenbyscholarsfromLatinandGreekenteredintoEnglish许多是学者从拉丁文和希腊文中提取(2)LatinateflavourofModernEnglish现代英语的拉丁风格。(3)Inthemid-seventeenthcentury,Englishabsorbedwordsfromallmajorlanguagesoftheworld在十七世纪中期,英语从所有世界的重要语言中吸取词汇。(4)Sincethebeginningof20thcentury,morewordsarecreatedbymeansofword-formation从本世纪初开始,更多的词通过构词法被发明出来Englishhasevolvedfromasyntheticlanguage(OldEnglish)tothepresentanalyticlanguage.英语已经由合成语言(古代英语)进化为现代分析语言7.GrowthofPresent-dayEnglishVocabularythreemainsources:(1)therapiddevelopmentofmodernscienceandtechnology(45%)现代科学和技术的迅猛发展(2)social,economicandpoliticalchanges(11%)社会,经济和政治的变化(3)theinfluenceofotherculturesandlanguages(24%)其它文化和语言的影响8.ModesofVocabularyDevelopment(1)Creations:发明是指新词的构成通过使用现有的材料,也就是说,词根,词缀和其他元素。(2)意义改变意味着一个老的形式获取新含义以便去应对新的需要。(3)借词曾经在词汇的发展中扮演了至关重要的角色,特别是在初期。(4)RevivingarchaicorobsoletewordsalsocontributestothegrowthofEnglishvocabularythoughquiteinsignificant.恢复的古词或者废弃的词也对英语词汇的成长做出了奉献。尽管收效甚微。Chapter3WordFormationI概念:词素、语素、语素变体1.Theminimalmeaningfulunitsareknownasmorphemes.themorphemeis'thesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionofwords'.最小的意义单位叫做“词素”。词素是“词语组成中最小的功能单位”。2.Morphemesareabstractunits,whicharerealizedinspeechbydiscreteunitsknownasmorphs.词素是抽象的单位,在话语中被认知通过度开的单位,这单位叫做“语素”。'Theyareactualspoken,minimalcarriersofmeaning'.它们事实上是能发音的最小的意义载体。Themorphemeistothemorphwhataphonemeistoaphone.语素是一个音素发音的词素。3.Morphemescoincidewithwordsastheycanstandbythemselvesandfunctionfreelyinasentence.theyarecalledmonomorphemicwords.语素与词相同,由于它们能代表含义并且可以在句子中自由起作用。这种词叫做单一语素词4.Morphemeswhicharerealizedbymorethanonemorphaccordingtotheirpositioninaword.Suchalternativemorphsareknownasallomorphs.一些词素被按照语素在其中排列而结识,那些替换的语素被称为”语素变体”。5.themorphemeofplurality|-s:tpk后面(-s)、dbgl后面(-z)、iz是在szJ,3,tj,之后thepasttense过去形式simplepresent一般现在时possessive所有格comparativeorsuperlativedegrees比较级和最高级6.(1)FreeMorphemes(自由词素):havecompletemeaninginthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences.Afreemorphemeisonethatcanstandbyitself.(whichareindependentofothermorphemesareconsideredtobefree).不依靠其他语素的语素是自由语素。这些语素自己有完整的意义可以在句子中当作自由的语法单位来使用。(2)BoundMorphemes(粘着语素):Aboundmorphemeisonethatcannotstandbyitself.Theyareboundtoothermorphemestoformwords.Boundmorphemesarechieflyfoundinderivedwords.+例子不能作为独立词出现的语素是粘连语素。这样称呼由于它们粘连其他语素去构成单词。粘连语素重要出现在派生词中。7.-ist“…的实践者”;-al表达“…的,关于…的”,-ize表达使成为;-ation表达:“动作”,“过程”,-ic与…有关的8.BoundMorphemeincludestwotypes:(1)boundroot(粘附词根)+例子(2)Affix(词缀)(1)aboundrootisthatpartofthewordthatcarriesthefundamentalmeaningjustlikeafreeroot.Unlikeafreeroot,itisaboundformandhastocombinewithothermorphemestomakewords.一个粘连词根是词中承担基础意义的部分,如同自由根词。和自由根词不同的是,他是一个粘连形式不得不与其他词素组合来构成单词。InEnglish,boundrootsareeitherLatinorGreek.Althoughtheyarelimitedinnumber,theirproductivepowerisamazing.(2)Affixesareformsthatareattachedtowordsorwordelementstomodifymeaningorfunction.词缀是附属在单词上或者单词元素上以修改词语意义和功能的结构。9.Affixescanbeputintotwogroups:1)Inflectionalaffixes(屈折词缀):affixesattachedtotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional,thusknownasinflectionalmorphemes.是附加在词尾用来表达屈折关系,因此被称为“屈折词素”。2)Derivationalaffixes(派生词缀):derivationalaffixesareaffixesaddedtoothermorphemestocreatenewwords.派生词缀是加在其他语素上建立新词的词缀。派生词缀可以分为前缀和后缀。Prefixescomebeforethewordandthesuffixesaftertheword10.Arootisthebasicformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalysedwithouttotallossofidentity.词根是一个词的基础形式不能在没有丧失定义的前提下继续分解.Intermsofderivationalandinflectionalmorphology,a'rootisthatpartofawordformthatremainswhenallinflectionalandderivationalaffixeshavebeenremoved'.根据派生和屈折语形学,“一个词根是词语中去除所有屈折词缀和派生词缀都去除剩下的部分。11.Astemcanbedefinedasaformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.词干可以被定义为任何词缀都可以添加的形式。Chapter4Word-FormationII(构词法)1.TheexpansionofvocabularyinmodernEnglishdependschieflyonword-formation现代英语中词汇的扩张只要依靠构词法2.构词法分类:affixation(30%-40%)词缀法(30%-40%)compounding(28%-30%)复合法(28%-30%)conversion(26%)转化法(26%)shortening(8%-10%)缩略法(8%-10%)blendingandothermeans(1%-5%)拼缀法和其他方法(1%-5%)3.Affixationisgenerallydefinedastheformationofwordsbyaddingword-formingorderivationalaffixestostems.Thisprocessisalsoknownasderivation,fornewwordscreatedinthiswayarederivedfromoldforms.Thewordsformedinthiswayarecalledderivatives.词缀法通常被认为是通过添加词形或者派生词缀到词干以构成新词的方法。这个过程也被称作“派生”,由于通过这种方式发明的新词是从旧词派生而来。通过这种方式造出的词叫做“派生词”。4.affixationfallsintotwosubclasses:prefixationandsuffixation.(1)Prefixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingprefixestostems.Prefixesdonotgenerallychangetheword-classofthestembutonlymodifyitsmeaning.前缀法通过给词干加前缀来构成新词。前缀通常不改变词干的词类但是只改变它的意思。Themajorityofprefixesarecharacterizedbytheirnon-class-changingnature.Theirchieffunctionistochangemeaningsofthestems.前缀的大多数都以不改变词类的特点为特性。它们的重要功能是改变词干的意义。(2)①Suffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestostems.Unlikeprefixeswhichprimarilychangethemeaningofthestem,suffixeshaveonlyasmallsemanticrole,theirprimaryfunctionbeingtochangethegrammaticalfunctionofstems.后缀法是通过添加后缀到词干来构成新词的方法。不象前缀重要改变词干的意思,后缀只有一个很小的意义作用,它们的重要作用是改变词干的语法功能。②weshallgroupsuffixesonagrammaticalbasisintonounsuffixes,verbsuffixes,adjectivesuffixes我们可以根据语法基础将后缀分为名词后缀,动词后缀,形容词后缀,等等③后缀的类别Deverbal动词派生Denominal名词派生需要记5.Compounding,alsocalledcomposition,istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestems.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledcompounds.复合词也叫组合词,是通过连接两个以上词干构成新词的方式。通过这样的方式构成的词叫复合词。三个特性:(1)Phoneticfeatures(exceptions:sociolinguistics,psycho-analysis)(2)Semanticfeatures:alotofcompoundsaretransparent许多复合词是意义明确的(3)Grammaticalfeatures6.Compoundingcantakeplacewithinanyofthewordclasses,buttheproductiveonesarenounsandadjectivesfollowedbyverbstoamuchlesserextent复合合用于任何词类,但是最具生产力的是名词和形容词后跟动词,这样限度更小。7.Formationofcompounds复合词组成(1)Nouncompounds(名词)(2)Adjectivecompounds(形容词)各11种需了解(3)Verbcompounds(conversionorbackformation)8.conversion(zero-derivation零派生)①Conversionistheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass.转换法是通过转换词类到另一词类的构成新词方法②Sincethewordsdonotchangeinmorphologicalstructurebutinfunction,thisprocessisalsoknownasfunctionalshift.由于词没有改变形态但是改变了功能,这个过程被称为“功能转换”。③Conversionisgenerallyconsideredtobeaderivationalprocesswherebyanitemisadaptedorconvertedtoanewwordclasswithouttheadditionofanaffix.Hencethenamezero-derivation反转通常被认为是一个派生的过程,一个词条被改变或者反转成为新词类,没有添加词缀。因此叫做“零派生”。④Wordsproducedbyconversionareprimarilynouns,adjectives,andverbs.通过反转产生的重要是名词,形容词和动词。⑤conversionisnotonlyachangeofgrammaticalfunctionofthelexicaliteminvolvedbutwithitthedifferentrangeofmeaningthatitoriginallycarried转换不仅是词条语法功能的转换,并且由于转换出现不同的语意范围,和本来承载的不同。9.Insomecases,conversionisaccompaniedbycertainchangeswhichaffectpronunciationorspellingorstressdistribution.Themostcommonchangesare:(1)Voicelesstovoicedconsonant(2)Initialtoendstress在某些情况下,反转被增长一定的变化,这些变化会影响读音或者拼写或者重音的分布。最常见的变化是:+例子(1)不发音的辅音变成发音的辅音。(2)开始重音到结束重音。10.Blendingistheformationofnewwordsbycombiningpartsoftwowordsorawordplusapartofanotherword.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledblendsorpormanteauwords.混合词是组合两个词的一部分或者一个词加上另一词的一部分来构词的方法。通过这种方式构造的词称作“混合词”或拼级词。+例子head+tail头+尾head+head头+头head+word头+整词word+tail整词+尾11.clipping另一种造词的常见方式是缩短一个长词,用减去原词一部分,使用剩下部分的方法。这叫删减。+例子Frontclipping前删Backclipping后删Frontandbackclipping前后删Phraseclipping删短语12.Acronymyistheprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofnamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorspecialnounphrasesandtechnicalterms.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledinitialismsoracronyms,dependingonthepronunciationofthewords.首字母缩略法是构成新词的过程,通过连接社会和政治组织或者特别名词短语和技术术语的首字母。通过这种方式建成的词叫做首字母缩略法和首字母拼音法,依赖词语的发音。13.Initialismsarewordspronouncedletterbyletter.IncaseslikeA.D.(AnnoDomini=intheyearafterthebirthofJesusChrist),B.C.(BeforeChrist)andC.O.D.(cashondelivery)缩略词是字母挨个发音的词14.Acronymsarewordsformedfrominitiallettersbutpronouncedasanormalword,forexampleradar(radiodetectingandranging),andWAVES(WomenAppointedforVoluntaryEmergencyService),etc首字母缩写词是从首字母构成,但是发音是正常词15.Back-formationisconsideredtobetheoppositeprocessofsuffixation.Asweknow,suffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestobases,andback-formationisthereforethemethodofcreatingwordsbyremovingthesupposedsuffixes.逆构法被认为是后缀法的相反过程。如我们所知,后缀法是通过加后缀到基础的构词方式,逆构法因此就是通过消除假想的后缀的方法来构词的方式。16.Wordscreatedthroughback-formationaremostlyverbs.Thereareonlyafewthatcanbeusedasnounsorasbothnounsandverbs通过逆构法构成的词大多数是动词,只有少数可以被当成名词使用,或者同时当作名词和动词。Chapter5WordMeaning1.Wordsarebutsymbols,manyofwhichhavemeaningonlywhentheyhaveacquiredreference词语只是符号,许多只当它们获得参考的时候才故意义。1.Reference(所指):Itistherelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheworld.Thereferenceofawordisarbitraryandconventional.Itisakindofabstraction,yetwiththehelpofcontext,itcanrefertosomethingspecific.参考是语言和世界之间的联系。其是任意且约定俗成的。尽管参考是一种抽象,然而在背景的帮助下,它能指示特定的事物。Theconnectionisaresultofgeneralizationandabstraction。它是一般化和抽象化的结果。2.Concept(概念):whichisbeyondlanguage,istheresultofhumancognition(结识),reflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.。概念,是在语言之外,是人类结识的结果,反映人心中的客观世界。3.Meaningandconcept:Theyarebothrelateddirectlytoreferentsandarenotionsofthewordsbutbelongtodifferentcategories.它们都是直接和参照物联系,并且是词的概念但是属于不同的种类。Meaningsoisrestrictedtolanguageuse.意义仅限于语言的使用。4.Sense:Itdenotestherelationshipinsidethelanguage.‘Thesenseofanexpressionisitsplaceinasystemofsemanticrelationshipswithotherexpressionsinthelanguage.’“语感”表达语言内部的关系。“表达的感觉是它在一套语意关系中的位置,和其他表达相对而言。5.SenseandReference:Unlikereference,'sense'denotestherelationshipsinsidethelanguage.'Thesenseofanexpressionisitsplaceinasystemofsemanticrelationshipswithotherexpressionsinthelanguage.'(ibid)Sincethesenseofanexpressionisnotathing,itisoftendifficulttosaywhatsortofidentityitis.Itisalsoanabstraction.Everywordthathasmeaninghassense(noteverywordhasreference).不像参考,“语感”表达语言内部的关系。“表达的感觉是它在一套语意关系中的位置,和其他表达相对而言。由于表达的感觉不是具体事物,因此很难说它属于哪种定义。它也是一种抽象。故意义的词都有语感(但并不是每个词都有参照物)。6.Motivation(动机):Motivationaccountsfortheconnectionbetweenthelinguisticsymbolanditsmeaning.Asweknow,therelationshipbetweentheword-formandmeaningisconventionalandarbitrary,andmostwordscanbesaidtobenon-motivated.动机说明语言符号和它意义之间的关系。如我们所知,词的形式和意义之间的关系是约定俗成和随意的,大多数词可以说是没有动机的。7.1)Onomatopoeicmotivation(象声动机):wordswhosesoundssuggesttheirmeaning,forthesewordswerecreatesbyimitatingthenaturalsoundsornoises.Knowingthesoundsofthewordsmeansunderstandingthemeaning.E.g.:bang,ping-pong,haha.一些词声音暗示了它们的意义。由于这些词是模仿自然界的声音而成。知道词的读音意味着理解意义。2)Morphologicalmotivation(词素动机):Compoundsandderivedwordsaremulti-morphemicwordsandthemeaningofmanyarethesumtotalofthemorphemescombines.E.g.:airmail,miniskirt.例外:blackmarket,ect.复合词和派生词是多词素词,许多词的意义是组合词素的总和。+实例分析3)Semanticmotivation(语义动机):referstothementalassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaningofaword.Itexplainstheconnectionbetweentheliteralsenseandfigurativesenseoftheword.E.g:thefootofthemountain(foot)语义动机指词的概念意义所暗示的心理联系。他说明单词字面意义和和比方意义之间的关系。+实例分析4)Etymologicalmotivation(语源动机):Themeaningsofmanywordsoftenrelatedirectlytotheirorigins.Inotherwordsthehistoryofthewordexplainsthemeaningoftheword.E.g:pen-feather许多词汇的意义通常直接和它们的源头相联系。换句话说,词语的历史解释了词语的意思。+实例分析8.1.GrammaticalMeaning(语法意义):grammaticalmeaningsreferstothatpartofthemeaningofthewordwhichindicatesgrammaticalconceptorrelationshipssuchaspartofspeechofwords(nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs),singularandpluralmeaningofnouns,tensemeaningofverbsandtheirinflectionalforms(forget,forgets,forgot,forgotten,forgetting).Grammaticalmeaningofawordbecomesimportantonlywhenitisusedinactualcontext.语法意义指词义中描述语法概念或者关系的部分,象是词汇说话中的部分(名词,动词,形容词,副词),名词的单复数意义,动词的时态意义和它们的屈折格形式。(略)。语法意义只有当它在实际使用的时候才变得重要。2.LexicalMeaning(词汇意义)(Lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaningmakeuptheword-meaning)词法意义和语法意义组成了词义。Butlexicalmeaningisconstantinallthecontentwordswithinorwithoutcontextasitisrelatedtothenotionthatthewordconveys.Lexicalmeaningitselfhastwocomponents:conceptualmeaningandassociativemeaning.但是词法意义在所有内容词中出现不管有没有上下文,由于它是和词语传达的意义相联系。词法意义自身涉及两个内容:概念意义和联系意义。1)Conceptualmeaning(概念意义):alsoknownasdenotativemeaning(外延意义)isthemeaninggiveninthedictionaryandformsthecoreofword-meaning.概念意义(也被称为指示意义)是字典中给出的意义,也是词义的核心。2)Associativemeaning(关联意义):isthesecondarymeaningsupplementedtotheconceptualmeaning.联想意义是用来补充概念意义的第二意义。[4types:Connotative(内涵意义):Incontrasttodenotativemeaning,overtonesorassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaning,traditionallyknownasconnotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来).隐含义。和指示义相比,隐含义指被概念义暗示的弦外之音或者联系。传统的被认为是隐含义。Stylistic(文体意义):Apartfromtheirconceptualmeanings,manywordshavestylisticfeatures,whichmakethemappropriatefordifferentcontexts.除了它们的概念义,许多词有文体特性,使它们适合不同的环境。这些清楚的特性构成了单词的文体意义。Affective(感情意义):indicatesthespeaker’sattitudetowardsthepersonorthinginquestion.感情义是指说者对讨论中的人或物的态度。这种情感价值观分两类:褒义和贬义appreciative&pejorativeCollocative(搭配意义):Thismeaningconsistsoftheassociationsawordacquiresinitscollocation.Inotherwords,itisthepartoftheword-meaningsuggestedbythewordsbeforeorafterthewordindiscussion.这种意义由词语在他的连接中获得的关系组成。换句话说,他是词义中被前面或后面词暗示的意义部分。9.特点:Itisnotanessentialpartoftheword-meaning,butassociationsthatmightoccurinthemindofaparticularuserofthelanguage.Connotativemeaningisunstable,varyingconsiderablyaccordingtoculture,historicalperiod,andtheexperienceoftheindividual.这些隐含义没有出现在字典中,但是对特定的读者和说者而言却和实际背景中词语相联系。隐含义是不稳定的,根据文化,历史时期和个人经验相对变化。Chapter6--Senserelationandsemanticfield(语义关系和语义场)1.Awordwhichisrelatedtootherwordsisrelatedtotheminsense,hencesenserelations.一个和其他词语相联系的词语在意义上和它们相联系。因此称为意义联系。Thesubjectsthathavelongheldtheinterestandattentionofsemanticistsarepolysemy,homonymy,synonymy,antonymyandhyponymy.吸引着语义学者的长期主题是歧义,同音异义,同义,反义和上下位关系。2.Polysemy(多义关系)Inthecourseofdevelopment,thesamesymbolmustbeusedtoexpressmoremeanings.Theresultispolysemy.在发展的过程中,同一个符号一定被用来表达更多的意义。结果就是歧义。(1)Twoapproachedtopolysemy(多义关系的两种研究方法):1.diachronicapproach(历时方法):fromthediachronicpointofview,polysemyisassumedtobetheresultofgrowthanddevelopmentofthesemanticstructureofoneandsameword.Firstmeaningistheprimarymeaning,thelatermeaningsarecalledderivedmeanings.从历时发展的观点,歧义被认为是一个词意义结构成长和发展的过程。在词语建立的时候,它只被赞助了一个意思。这个意义是基本义。后来的意义被称为“派生义”。Atthetimewhenthewordwascreated,itwasendowedwithonlyonemeaning.在词语建立的时候,它只被赋予了一个意思。2.synchronicapproach(共时方法):synchronically,polysemyisviewedasthecoexistenceofvariousmeaningsofthesamewordinacertainhistoricalperiodoftime.基本意义是centralmeaning,次要意义是derivedmeaning.从共时的角度看,歧义被当作同一词在一定历史时期不批准义的共存。(2)Twoprocessesofdevelopment(词义的两种发展类型):1.radiation(辐射型):isasemanticprocessinwhichtheprimarymeaningstandsatthecentreandthesecondarymeaningsproceedoutofitineverydirectionlikerayes.(e.g:face,neck)辐射发展是语义发展,基本义处在中心地位而次要意义由中心义辐射而出,象是射线。Themeaningsareindependentofoneanother,butcanallbetracedbacktothecentralmeaning.其他的意义都是独立的,但是都能追溯到中心义。2.concatenation(连锁型):meaning'linkingtogether',isthesemanticprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovegraduallyawayfromitsfirstsensebysuccessiveshiftsuntilthereisnotasignofconnectionbetweenthesensethatisfinallydevelopedandthatwhichthetermhadatthebeginning.(e.g:treacle)意思是联系在一起,是语义过程,在其中词义通过不断转移直到最终发展的意义和在开始时的意义之间没有了连接的痕迹为止。3.区别:Unlikeradiationwhereeachofthederivedmeaningsisdirectlyconnectedtotheprimarymeaning,concatenationdescribesaprocesswhereeachofthelatermeaningisrelatedonlytotheprecedingonelikechains.不像“辐射发展”,每一个派生义都和基本义直接联系,连接义描述了每个后来的意义都只和前面的一个意义有联系,就像是链条。Thoughthelatestsensecanbetracedbacktotheoriginal,thereisnodirectconnectioninbetween.尽管最后的意义可以被追溯到起源,但是两者之间没有直接的联系。4.联系:Theyarecloselyrelated,beingdifferentstagesofthedevelopmentleadingtopolysemy.Generally,radiationprecedesconcatenation.Inmanycases,thetwoprocessesworktogether,complementingeachother.辐射和连接紧密相关,是导向歧义的不同发展阶段。总体来说,辐射先于连接。许多时候,两个过程同时起作用,互为补充。3.Homonymy(同音异义关系):wordsdifferentinmeaningbuteitheridenticalbothinsoundandspellingoridenticalonlyinsoundorspelling.同音异义通常被定义为意义不同但是或者在声音和拼写上都相同,或者只在声音或拼写上相同的词。(1)Typesofhomonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)+例子1)Perfecthomonyms(完全同音同形异义词):wordsidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,butdifferentinmeaning.完全同音同形异义词就是发音和拼写完全相同,但是意义不同2)Homographs(同形异义词):wordsidenticalonlyinspelling,butdifferentinsoundandmeaning.同形异义词是只有拼写相同,但是读音和意义不同3)Homophones(同音异义词):wordsidenticalonlyinsoundbutdifferentinspellingandmeaning.(最多最常见)同音字是只有读音相同,但是拼写和意义不同homophonesconstitutethelargestnumberandaremostcommon.在三种类型中,同音词数量最多最常用。(2)Originsofhomonyms(同形同音异义词的来源)+例子1)changeinsoundandspelling:(eare-ear,lang-long,langian-long)2)borrowing(feria-fair,beallu-ball,baller-ball)3)Shortening(缩略):(ad-advertisement,)(3)DifferentiationofHomonymsfromPolysemants(同音同形异义词和多义词的区别):Perfecthomonymsandpolysemantsarefullyidenticalwithregardtospellingandpronunciation.Thiscreatestheproblemofdifferentiation.完美同名词和歧义词都在拼写和发音方面完全,这产生了区别的问题。1)Thefundamentaldifferencebetweenhomonymsandpolysemantsliesinthefactthattheformerreferstodifferentwordswhichhappentosharethesameformandthelatteristheoneandsamewordwhichhasseveraldistinguishablemeanings.基本的区别是表现在下面的事实,也就是前者指不同的词恰巧分享了相同的形式,后者是同一个词有不同的意义。2)Oneimportantcriterionistoseetheiretymology,i.e.homonymsarefromdifferentsources

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