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GREENHYDROGENIN

DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES

GREENHYDROGENINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES

ThisreportwasresearchedandpreparedbystaffandconsultantsattheEnergySectorManagementAssistanceProgram(ESMAP),partoftheWorldBank.TheworkwasfundedbyESMAPandtheWorldBank.TheauthorsandmaincontributorstothereportwereFernandodeSisternes(TaskTeamLeaderandEnergySpecialist,ES-MAP)andChristopherJackson(Consultant,ESMAP).TheauthorsthankpeerreviewersDemetriosPapathanasiou(PracticeManager,WorldBank),RafaelBen(EnergySpecialist,WorldBank),PeterMockel(PrincipalIndustrySpecialist,IFC),PierreAudinet(LeadEnergySpecialist,WorldBank),ManuelMillan(SeniorEnergySpecial-ist,WorldBank),GabrielaElizondo(SeniorEnergySpecialist,WorldBank),DanielRoberts(CSIRO),JennyHayward(CSIRO),ChrisMunnings(CSIRO),andJeniferBaxter(IMechE),whogavetheirtimeandcommentstodraftsofthisreport.TheauthorswishtoexpresstheirgratitudetoRohitKhanna(PracticeManager,ESMAP),ZuzanaDobrotkova(SeniorEnergySpecialist,ESMAP),IvanJaques(SeniorEnergySpecialist,ESMAP),SandraChavez(Consultant,ESMAP),andElizabethMinchew(AssociateOperationsOfficer,IFC)fortheirvaluablecommentsthroughoutdifferentstagesofthisreport.TheauthorsalsowishtothankMarjorieAraya(ProgramAssistant,ESMAP),PaulineChin(SeniorProgramAssistant,ESMAP),andMelissaTaylor(ProgramAssistant,ESMAP)fortheirinvaluablesupport,andAshleyYoung(PublicationsProfessionals),LindaStringer(PublicationsProfessionals),MarcyGessel(PublicationsProfessionals),andDebraNaylor(NaylorDesign)fortheireditorialanddesignwork.

©2020InternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/TheWorldBank1818HStreetNW,Washington,DC20433|USA202-473-1000|

ThisworkisaproductofthestaffoftheWorldBankwithexternalcontributions.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthisworkdonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheWorldBank,itsBoardofExecutiveDirectors,orthegovernmentstheyrepresent.TheWorldBankdoesnotguaranteetheaccuracyofthedataincludedinthiswork.Theboundaries,colors,denominations,andotherinformationshownonanymapinthisworkdonotimplyanyjudgmentonthepartoftheWorldBankconcerningthelegalstatusofanyterritoryortheendorsementoracceptanceofsuchboundaries.

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Attribution—Pleasecitetheworkasfollows:

ESMAP.2020.GreenHydrogeninDevelopingCountries.Washington,DC:WorldBank.

FrontCover:©AdAstraRocket

BackCover:©GeoffBrown/AngloAmerican

ii

©CERESPOWER

ESMAPMISSION

TheEnergySectorManagementAssistanceProgram(ESMAP)isaglobalknowledgeandtechnicalassistanceprogramadministeredbytheWorldBank.ESMAPassistslow-andmiddle-incomecoun-triesinincreasingtheirknow-howandinstitutionalcapacitytoachieveenvironmentallysustainableenergysolutionsforpovertyreductionandeconomicgrowth.

ESMAPisfundedbyAustralia,Austria,Canada,Denmark,theEuropeanCommission,Finland,France,Germany,Iceland,Italy,Japan,Lithuania,Luxembourg,theNetherlands,Norway,theRocke-fellerFoundation,Sweden,Switzerland,theUnitedKingdom,andtheWorldBank.

©SFC

CONTENTS

EXECUTIVESUMMARY xi

ABBREVIATIONSANDACRONYMS viii

GLOSSARYOFTERMS ix

1:INTRODUCTION

1

2:WHYGREENHYDROGEN,WHYNOW,ANDWHYDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES?

9

2.1.Whygreenhydrogen?

10

2.2.Whynow?

11

2.3.Whydevelopingcountries?

16

2.4.Short-term,medium-term,andlong-termopportunitiesforgreenhydrogen

25

3:STATEOFTHEMARKET

27

3.1.Howfuelcellandelectrolyzertechnologieswork

28

3.2.Marketsize

31

3.3.Costs

36

4:ENERGYAPPLICATIONSANDCOMMERCIALSOLUTIONS

45

4.1.Residentialapplications

46

4.2.Back-uppowerapplications

48

4.3.Off-gridpowerapplications

49

4.4.Commercialapplications

51

4.5.Utility-scaleapplications

53

4.6.Levelizedcostofenergyillustrativemodeling:greenhydrogenproductionandfuelcellsystem

55

5:MOBILITYAPPLICATIONS

59

5.1.Fuelcellelectricvehicles

61

5.2.Fuelcellelectricbuses

62

5.4.Shippingandtrains

67

5.5.Hydrogenrefuelingstations

70

5.6.Materialhandlingandforklifts

72

6:INDUSTRIALAPPLICATIONS

76

6.1.Ironandsteel

76

6.2.Ammonia

77

6.3.Refining

79

6.4.Glass,food,andotherareas

79

6.5.Otherhydrogenfuels

80

7:IMPLEMENTATIONCHALLENGES

83

7.1.Implementationcapacityandinfrastructurerequirements

84

7.2.Gettingtherightinputs

90

7.3.Transportandstorage

93

8:AREASFORFURTHERRESEARCH

99

BIBLIOGRAPHY

101

v

GREENHYDROGENINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES

LISTOFFIGURES

ES.1:Primaryhydrogenandfuelcellapplicationsandecosystemfordevelopingcountries xvi

ES.2:HydrogenSouthAfricasolarplusbattery,hydrogenelectrolysis,andfuelcellsystem xix

1.1:Globalhydrogenmarket,byproductionmethod

3

1.2:Greenhydrogengenerationandfuelcellexamples:Electrolyzerandcommunitywindsite,Shapinsey,

OrkneyIslands,UnitedKingdom(left)andBloomEnergycommercialunit,UnitedStates(right)

6

2.1:OECDRD&DSpending,US$,millions,2001–17

12

2.2:World’sLargestElectrolyzer:NorskHydro135MWElectrolyzer,Glomfjord,Norway

13

2.3:LifetimePerformanceofSiemens-WestinghouseSOFCUnits,TestResults

14

2.4:World’slargestcurrentelectrolyzer(25MW),polysiliconplant,Sarawak,Malaysia

19

2.5:FuelcellsforcriticalinfrastructureinIndonesia

22

2.6:CommercialfuelcellinstallationinIndia

24

3.1:Simplediagramofaprotonexchangemembranefuelcell

28

3.2:SimplifieddiagramsofaPEMandalkalineelectrolyzer

30

3.3:Projectionsandroadmapsforglobalhydrogenintheenergysectordemand

31

3.4:Powertogas,windtohydrogeninGermany

32

3.5:ElectrolyzergigafactoryunderconstructioninSheffield,UnitedKingdom

34

3.6:Technologydeploymentcurvesforfuelcellsversuswind,andsolarphotovoltaic

35

3.7:Averagefuelcellelectricalefficienciesbetween2005and2019

36

3.8:SpreadinUnitedStateshydrogenpricesfromHyDRA,April2019

38

3.9:ITMPEMelectrolyzer,NationalPhysicsLab,UnitedKingdom,2019(left)andSiemensSilyzer3000,

MainzPark,Germany,2019(right)

41

3.10:StationaryPEMfuelcellcost

42

3.11:Reportedequipmentcostdeclinecurvesfromleadingfuelcellsuppliers

43

4.1:Examplesofresidentialfuelcellsystems

47

4.2:PhiSueaoff-the-gridhouse,Thailand,hydrogensystems

48

4.3:HydrogenboilersdeployedatShapinseySchool,Kirkwall,UnitedKingdom

49

4.4:Snapshotofportablefuelcellsfortelecomapplications:GenCellA52019(right),SFCEnergymethanolfuel

cell2019(center),andSFCEnergymethanolfuelcellback-upforlightingsystem2019(left)

51

4.5:Utility-scalefuelcellsolutions:SolidoxidefuelcellunitsintheUS

54

4.6:PEMfuelcell1MWunitusingexcesshydrogenfromislandrefinery,Martinique,2019

56

4.7:Illustrativelevelizedcostofenergyofgreenhydrogen-basedelectricity,

modelingunderthreescenarios,$/MWh

56

5.1:Californiamonthlyfuelcellelectricvehiclemarket,January2014–December2019

(numberofsoldandleasedunits)

64

5.2:Pastandpresentfuelcellbusexamples,1993(left)and2014(right)

64

5.3:Decliningcostoffuelcellelectricbuses,usingBallardPowerSystemsdata

66

5.4:FuelcellbusrefuelinginWuhan,China

66

5.5:Currentfuelcelltruckconcepts

68

5.6:Greenhydrogenrefueling,withon-sitehydrogengenerationfromrooftopphotovoltaic:Freiburg,Germany,in2012(left)

andEmeryville,California,in2011(right)

71

5.7:Exampleofhydrogenrefuelingstationconfiguration(noon-siteproduction)

71

5.8:Hydrogenforkliftrefueling

73

6.1:ElectrolyzeratanIndianironproductionplant

76

6.2:HYBRITconceptimage

77

6.3:World’sfirstwind-to-ammoniaproject

78

6.4:SunfiresyntheticgreenfuelsfromhydrogeninGermany

80

vi

7.1:HydrogencompressorsforrefuelinginChina:CompressorforZhangjiekhoubusstation(left)and

compressorforZongshanDayanghydrogenbusrefuelingstation(right)

85

7.2:Safetymeasuresinstalledforhydrogenleakdetection,protection,andmitigation:KirkwallHarbourHydrogentanks

ventingline(left),KirkwallHarbourPEMfuelcellgasleakagemonitoringsensor(center),andShapinseySchool

pressurizedhydrogencanistersstoredinblastwall–coveredarea,outdoorswithaninfraredcamera

88

7.3:WarningsystemconfigurationforPEMelectrolyzeratShapinsey:PEMelectrolysisunitinfraredcameraand

warningalarms,Shapinsey,OrkneyIslands,UnitedKingdom(left)andShapinseyPEMelectrolyzerson

nonstaticconcreteandwithhydrogenventilationshafts

88

7.4:Shapinseyferryhydrogentrailersandsafetymeasuresatsea:Orkneyislandhydrogentrailer(left);Orkneyferryto

Shapinsey,UnitedKingdom(topright);andfirehouseforhydrogentrailer(bottomright)

89

7.5:Pressurizedhydrogenstoragetrailers

94

7.6:Liquidorganichydrogencarriersolutioninoperation,Tennessee,UnitedStates

96

LISTOFBOXES

ES.1:Hydrogenfundamentals xxii

2.1:HybridenergystoragesystemsinFrenchGuiana

18

2.2:BalancingwindinThailand:SoutheastAsia’sfirstmegawatt-scaleenergystorageproject

21

2.3:AstrategicvisionforAfrica’shydrogeneconomy

23

2.4:FuelcellbusesinIndia

25

4.1:DisplacingdieselinIndonesia’stelecommunicationssector

50

4.2:PoweringschoolsinSouthAfrica

52

4.3:Greenhydrogenstorageandbatteries

55

5.1:Fuelcellversusbatteryelectricvehicles

60

5.2:HydrogenmobilityinChina

63

5.3:CleanmobilityinCostaRicausingCentralAmerica’sfirstfuelcellbus

65

5.4:HydrogenforminingmobilityoperationsinChile

69

5.5:EnergystorageandgreenhydrogenrefuelingonSingapore’sSemakauIsland

72

7.1:Operationsandmaintenancechallengesforgreenhydrogenindevelopingcountries

91

LISTOFTABLES

BES.1.1:Energycontentandenergypricecomparisonofcommonlyusedfuels xxii

3.1:Estimatedglobalmanufacturingcapacityforelectrolyzers(PEMandalkaline),2019

33

3.2:Estimatedglobalmanufacturingcapacityforfuelcellsacrossalltechnologies,2019

37

3.3:Productioncostestimatesofhydrogenfromsteammethanereformingandcoalgasification

(excludingtransportandstoragecosts)

38

3.4:Costestimatesofhydrogengeneratedviawaterelectrolysis

40

3.5Sampleofelectrolyzercapitalexpenditureestimates

41

3.6:Overviewofprimaryfuelcelltechnologies

44

3.7:Methanolandammoniafuelcells

44

4.1:Overviewofstationaryfuelcellapplications

46

5.1:Overviewofnotablecurrentlyavailableandannouncedpassengerfuelcellelectricvehiclemodels

61

7.1:Hydrogenpurityrequirements

92

7.2:Overviewofhydrogentransportationmethods

95

vii

GREENHYDROGENINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES

ABBREVIATIONSANDACROYNYMS

AEMAFCAHP

BEVCAGR

capex

CCGTCCSCCUCEOG

CHPCSIRO

CNGCO2DMFCDOEEGAT

EJESMAP

EU

EVFCEBFCEVFCHJU

GHGGWHRSHTAPHySA

anionexchangemembrane

alkalinefuelcell

AfricanHydrogenPartnership

Association

batteryelectricvehicle

compoundannualgrowthrate

capitalexpenditure

combinedcyclegasturbine

carboncaptureandstorage

carboncaptureanduse

CentraleÉlectriquedel’OuestGuyanais(FrenchGuiana)(WesternGuianaPowerPlant)

combinedheatandpower

CommonwealthScientificandIndustrialResearchOrganisation

compressednaturalgas

carbondioxide

directmethanolfuelcell

DepartmentofEnergy

ElectricityGeneratingAuthorityof

Thailand

exajoule

EnergySectorManagementAssistanceProgram

EuropeanUnion

electricvehicle

fuelcellelectricbus

fuelcellelectricvehicle

FuelCellsandHydrogenJoint

Undertaking

greenhousegas

gigawatt

hydrogenrefuelingstation

HydrogenTechnologyAdvisoryPanel

HydrogenSouthAfrica

IEA

IOC

IPCC

IRENA

kg

kW

LNG

LCOE

LOHC

MCFC

MEA

MJ

Mtoe

MW

MWh

NASA

NDC

NREL

OEM

PAFC

PEM

PPA

PV

R&D

RD&D

SMR

SOE

SOFC

VRE

InternationalEnergyAgencyIndianOilCompanyIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange

InternationalRenewableEnergyAgencykilogram

kilowatt

liquefiednaturalgas

levelizedcostofenergy

liquidorganichydrogencarrier

moltencarbonatefuelcell

membraneelectrodeassembly

megajoule

milliontonnesofoilequivalent

megawatt

megawatt-hour

NationalAeronauticsandSpace

Administration

NationallyDeterminedContributionNationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory

originalequipmentmanufacturerphosphoricacidfuelcellprotonexchangemembranepowerpurchasingagreementphotovoltaic

researchanddevelopment

research,development,anddeploymentsteammethanereforming

solidoxideelectrolysis

solidoxidefuelcell

variablerenewableenergy

AlldollarfiguresdenoteUSdollarsunlessotherwisenoted.

viii

GLOSSARYOFTERMS

GLOSSARYOFTERMS

Alkalineelectrolyzer—Thisistheoldestestablishedtechnologyforcreatinghydrogenfromwaterandelectricity.Thenameisderivedfromtheelectrolyteused,whichistypicallybasedoneitherpotassiumhydroxide(KOH)orsodiumhydroxide(NaOH).

Alkalinefuelcell—Thisisoneoftheoldestandcheapestfuelcelltechnologies.Becauseofthisfuelcell’shighlyconductiveelectrolyteandhighlyreactiveelectrodes,manufacturershavebeenabletoassemblelargerunits,andthusreducelossesandprovidehighergeneralelectricalefficienciesthanotherfuelcells.Despitethesefea-tures,relativelyfewhavebeendeployed.

Bluehydrogen—Thistermisusedforhydrogenproducedusinglow-carbonprocesses.Itisalmostexclusivelyusedtorefertohydrogenproducedvianaturalgasorcoalgasificationbutcombinedwithcarboncapturestorage(CCS)orcarboncaptureuse(CCU)technologiesinordertoreducecarbonemissionssignificantlybelowtheirnormallevelsfortheseprocesses.Itcan,however,alsorefertohydrogenproducedviapyrolysis,bywhichhydrogenisseparatedintohydrogenandasolidcarbonproductcolloquiallycalled“carbonblack.”

Blackhydrogen—Hydrogenproducedfromcoalviacoalgasificationandextraction.

Brownhydrogen—Hydrogenproducedfromlignite(seeblackhydrogen).

CHP—Anabbreviationthatstandsforcombinedheatandpower.Atermusedtodescribeatechnologythatproducesbothheatandpowerforcommercialuses.

Coalgasification—Aprocessthroughwhichcoalisdeconstructedintoagasviaacombinationofhighpressureandhightemperaturesteam,andbyexternalheat.Thisprocesstransformsthecomplexhydrocarbonsfromasolidstateintoagaseousone,thusfacilitatingthereformingofthehydrocarbongasandallowinghydrogentobeextracted.

DMFC—Anabbreviationthatstandsfordirectmethanolfuelcell.ThistechnologyisbasedonaPEMfuelcelldesign,whichcanacceptmethanoldirectly.

Electrolyzer—Atechnologythatconvertswaterandelectricityintohydrogen,oxygen,andheat.Thetechnologyhasdifferingnamesdependingontheelectrolyteusedtofacilitatethechemicalreaction.

FC—Anabbreviationforfuelcell,whichisatechnologythatconvertshydrogenintowater,heat,andelectricitythroughachemicalreactionthatcombineshydrogenwithoxygen,usuallyfromthefilteredambientair.Theab-breviation“FC”isfrequentlyaddedtotheendofadescriptor—forexample,PEMFCstandsforprotonexchangemembranefuelcell.Fuelcellscanrangefromafewwattsinsizetomultimegawattunits.Theycanbeusedforstationary,mobile,andportableapplications,withdifferingperformancelifetimes,efficiencies,andoperatingtemperaturesavailable,dependingonthespecificfuelcelltechnology.

FCEV—Anabbreviationforfuelcellelectricvehicle.Themainbodyofthevehicleremainselectric,buttheprimarypropulsionfuelishydrogen,whichisconsumedbyafuelcellwithinthevehicle.Frequently,abatterycomponentisalsoincludedwiththefuelcellforquick-startfunctionsandactionswhenthevehicleisnotrunning.

FCEB—Anabbreviationforfuelcellelectricbus.Thesevehiclesbuildonexistingbusorevenelectricbusdesignsbyaddingafuelcellandhydrogenfuelsupplyequipment,installedbyaspecialistsystemsintegrator.

ix

GREENHYDROGENINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES

Greenhydrogen—Thistermisusedforhydrogenproducedfrom100percentrenewablesources.Itmostcommonlyreferstohydrogencreatedfromaprocesscalledelectrolysis,whichcanuse100percentrenewablepowerandwatertocreatepurehydrogenandoxygen.Othergreenhydrogenproductionmethodsincludehydrogenextractionfromreformedbiogasandhydrogenextractionfromwaste.

Grayhydrogen—Thistermusuallyreferstohydrogenproducedviasteammethanereforming(SMR),anditisthemostcommontypeofhydrogenproducedglobally.Grayhydrogencanalsorefertohydrogenthatiscreatedasaresidualproductofachemicalprocess—notably,theproductionofchlorinefromchlor-alkaliplants.

Hydrides—Ahydrogenstoragetechnologythatisabletoabsorbhydrogenintodifferingsolids,includingcer-tainmetalliccompoundsandporousnanoparticles.Thehydrogenstoredinthisformcanthenbereleasedbackviachangesinpressure,decompositionoveracatalyst,oranincreaseinheat.Thestorageunitcanberecycledanddoesnotrequireregularreplacement.

Hydrogen—Thelightestelementintheperiodictableandthemostcommonintheuniverse.Becauseofitsnaturaltendencytoformbondswithothermolecules,itisrarelyfoundunboundedinnature.Itcanthereforebeconsideredasastorageofenergybecausethemoleculescanbeeasilyencouragedtoformbondswithotherel-ementsthrougheitherchemicalorcombustionprocesses.Theproductsoftheseprocessesarewaterandenergy(which,dependingonthereaction,canbeintheformofelectricityandheat,orsimplyheat).Itisawidelyusedcommercialgas,withabroadrangeofapplicationsintheenergytransition.

LOHC—Anabbreviationforliquidorganichydrogencarriers,whichare(usually)hydrocarbonmolecules,suchasmethylcyclohexaneordibenzyltolueneandcanbeusedtoabsorblargequantitiesofhydrogenforlong-dura-tionstorageorfortransportation.

MCFC—Anabbreviationformoltencarbonatefuelcell.Thisisahigher-temperaturefuelcellthatispredomi-nantlydeployedintheRepublicofKoreaandtheUnitedStates,largelyrunningonnaturalgasfromthegrid.

PAFC—Anabbreviationforphosphoricacidfuelcell,whichhasbeendeployedgloballyandisconsideredtooperateatintermediatetemperatures,withalongoperatinglifetime.

PEM—Anabbreviationforprotonexchangemembrane,achemicalsolutionusedfortheelectrolyteineitherafuelcelloranelectrolyzerthatsharesthename.PEMfuelcellsarethemostwidelydeployedfuelcelltechnologytodayandaretheoverwhelminglypreferredtechnologyforfuelcellmobilityapplications.PEMelectrolyzersaremuchnewerandlessdevelopedthanalkalineelectrolyzersare.However,theyareshowingfastsignsofscalingandtypicallyproducehigher-purityhydrogenwithgreaterflexibilityinproductionthanalkalinesolutions.

SMR—Anabbreviationforsteammethanereforming,aprocessbywhichhydrogenisextractedfromnaturalgasormethane.

SOFC—Anabbreviationforsolidoxidefuelcells.Theseareamongthemostefficientandlongest-durationfuelcellscommerciallyavailable.Whilethereareemergingsolidoxideelectrolyzers(SOEs)thatpromisehigherefficienciesandlifetimesthanareavailableviaPEMandalkalineelectrolyzers,fornowSOEsremainatthepilotstagewithlimitedunitsinthefield,allofwhicharebelowthe1megawattscale.

x

ExEcutivESummary

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

KEYTAKEAWAYS

nInthefuture,greenhydrogen—hydrogenproducedwithrenewableenergyresources—couldprovidedevel-opingcountrieswithazero-carbonenergycarriertosupportnationalsustainableenergyobjectives,anditneedsfurtherconsiderationbypolicymakersandinvestors.

nDevelopingcountrieswithgoodrenewableenergyresourcescouldproducegreenhydrogenlocally,gener-atingeconomicopportunities,andincreasingenergysecuritybyreducingexposuretooilpricevolatilityandsupplydisruptions.

nGreenhydrogensolutionscoulddecarbonizehard-to-abatesectorssuchasheavyindustry,buildings,andtransportwhilecatalyzingrenewable-basedenergysystemsindevelopingcountries.

nElectrolyzersandfuelcelltechnologiesareexperiencingsignificantcost,efficiency,andproductqualityimprove-ments,withgreenhydrogensteadilyclosingthecostgapwithfossilfuel-derivedhydrogenincertaincontextsandgeographies.Still,furthercostreductionsareneededforgreenhydrogentoscaleup.

nThetechnologiesnecessarytoprovideasystemictransitionpathwayforsupplyinghydrogen-basedlow-emis-sionsheat,seasonalenergystorage,firmpower,andheavy-dutymobilitysolutionsalreadyexisttoday.

nGreenhydrogencouldprovideenergysystemswithalong-termenergystoragesolutioncapableofmitigatingthevariabilityofrenewableresources,thusincreasingthepaceandpenetrationofrenewableenergy.

nDeploymentofgreen-hydrogen–basedsystemscanfacilitate“sectorcoupling”amongdifferenteconomicsectors,minimizingthecostofmeetingsectors’combineddecarbonizedenergyneeds.

nFuelcellsmayhaveimmediateapplicationsindevelopingcountries,particularlyprovidingdecentralizedsolutionsforcriticalsystems,poweringequipmentinemergencyresponses,andincreasingenergyaccessinremoteareas.

nDespitethemanyyearsofexperiencehandlinghydrogeninindustry,risksthroughoutthehydrogenvaluechains