农村区域发展专业英语

-.zForeword填空1：Developmentstudiesisamultidisciplinarybranchofsocialsciencewhichaddressesissuesofconcerntodevelopingcountries.Ithashistoricallyplacedaparticularfocusonissuesrelatedtosocialandeconomicdevelopment,anditsrelevancemaythereforee*tendtocommunitiesandregionsoutsideofdevelopingworld.DevelopmentstudiesisofferedasaspecializedMaster’sdegreeinanumberofuniversities,and,lesscommonly,asanundergraduatedegree.Ithasgrowninpopularityasasubjectofstudysincetheearly1990s,andhasbeenmostwidelytaughtandresearchedinthethirdworld.InChina,thiscoursehasbeentaughtindifferentcollegeofAgronomy.InChinaAgriculturalUniversity,thiscoursehasbeentaughtinCollegeofHumanitiesandDevelopment(theformerCollegeofRuralDevelopment).Ithasalsobeentaughtincountrieswithacolonialhistory,suchastheUK,wheredevelopmentstudiesoriginated.Asasubject,itismainlycomposedof3parts:developmenttheory,developmentresearchanddevelopmentpractice.答题1——举3个例子说明开展援助并不总是有效的〔有无效的时候〕2.4EffectivenessAideffectivenessIsthedegreetowhichdevelopmentaidworks,andis,asubjectofsignificantdisagreement.DissidenteconomistssuchasPeterBauerandMiltonFriedmanarguedinthe1960sthataidIsineffective.Manyeconometricstudiesinrecentyearshavesupportedtheviewthatdevelopmentaidhasnoeffectonthespeedwithwhichcountriesdevelop.Negativesideeffectsofaidcanincludedasunbalancedappreciationofrecipient’scurrency(knownasDutchDisease)increasingcorruption,andadversepoliticaleffectssuchaspostponementsofnecessaryeconomicanddemocraticreforms.Thereisalsomuchdebateaboutwhichformdevelopmentaidshouldtakeinordertobeeffective.Ithasbeenarguedthatmuchgovernment-to-governmentaidwasineffectivebecauseitwasmerelyawaytosupportstrategicallyimportantleaders.Agoode*ampleofthisIstheformerdictatorofZAIRE,MobutoSeseSeko,wholostsupportfromtheWestaftertheColdWarhadended.Mobuto,atthetimeofhisdeath,hadasufficientpersonalfortune(particularlyinSwissbanks)topayofftheentiree*ternaldebtofZaire.Besidessomeinstancesthatonlythepresident(and/orhiscloseentourage)receivesthemoneresultingfromdevelopmentaid,themoneyobtainedisoftenbadlyspentaswell.Fore*ample,inChad,theChadE*portProject,aoilproductionprojectsupportedbytheWorldBank,wassetup.Theearningsofthisprojectwereusedtoobtainarms.Thegovernmentdefendedthispurchasebystatingthat“developmentwasnotpossiblewithoutsafety〞.However,theMilitaryofhadisnotoriousforseveremisconductagainstthepopulationanddidnotevendefendthepopulationindistress.In2021,theWorldBankretreatedfromtheprojectthatthusincreasedenvironmentalpollutionandhumansuffering.AnothercriticismhasbeenthatWesterncountriesoftenprojecttheirownneedsandsolutionsontoothersocietiesandcultures.Inresponse,westernhelpinsomecaseshasbecomemore‘endogenous’,whichmeansthatneedsaswellassolutionsarebeingdevisedinaccordancewithlocalcultures.Ithasalsobeenarguedthathelpbasedondirectdonationcreatesdependencyandcorruption,andhasanadverseeffectonlocalproduction.Asaresult,ashifthastakenplacetowardsaidbasedonactivationoflocalassetsandstimulationmeasuressuchasmicrocredit.Aidhasalsobeenarguedthathelpbasedondirectdonationcreatesdependencyandcorruption,andhasanadverseeffectonlocalproduction.Asaresult,ashifthastakenplacetowardsaidbasedonactivationoflocalassetsandstimulationmeasuressuchasmicrocredit.Aidhasalsobeenineffectiveinyoungrecipientcountriesinwhichethnictensionsarestrong:sometimesethnicconflictshavepreventedefficientdeliveryofaid.Insomecases,westernsurplusesthatresultedfromfaultyagriculture-orotherpolicieshavebeendumpedinpoorcountries,thuswipingoutlocalproductionandincreasingdependency.Inseveralinstances,loansthatwereconsideredirretrievable(forinstancebecausefundshadbeenembezzledbyadictatorwhohasalreadydiedordisappeared),havebeenwrittenoffbydonorcountries,whosubsequentlybookedthisasdevelopmentaid.Inmanycases,WesterngovernmentsplacedorderswithWesterncompaniesasaformofsubsidizingthem,andlatershippedthesegoodstopoorcountrieswhichoftenhadnouseforthem.Theseprojectsaresometimescalledwhiteelephants.AcommoncriticisminrecentyearsIsthatrichcountrieshaveputsomanyconditionsonaidthatithasreducedaideffectiveness.Inthee*ampleoftiedaid,donorcountriesoftenrequiretherecipienttopurchasegoodsandservicesfromthedonor,evenifthesearecheaperelsewhere.Otherconditionsincludeopeningupthecountrytoforeigninvestment,evenifitmightnotbereadytodoso.Alloftheseproblemshavemadethataverylargepartofthespendmoneyondevelopmentaidissimplywasteduselessly.AccordingtoGerbertvanderAa,fortheNetherlands,only33%ofthedevelopmentaidissuccessful,another33%failsandoftheremaining33%theeffectisunclear.Ane*cerptfromDr.ThomasDichter’srecentlypublishedbookDespiteGoodIntentions:WhyDevelopmentAssistancetotheThirdWorldHasFailedreads:〞Thisindustryhasbecomeoneinwhichthebenefitsofwhatisspentareincreasinglyininverseproportiontotheamountspent-acaseofmoregetsyouless.Asdonorsareattractedonthebasisofappealsemphasizing“product〞,results,andaccountability…thetendencytoengageinproject-based,direct-actiondevelopmentbecomesinevitable.Becausefundingfordevelopmentisincreasinglyfinite,thissituationisverymuchazero-sumgame.Whatgetslostintheshuffleisthefarmorechallenginglong-termprocessofdevelopment.〞TheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology’sAbhijitBanerjeeandRuiminHehaveundertakenarigorousstudyoftherelativelyfewindependentevaluationsofaidprogramsuccessesandfailures.Theysuggestthefollowinginterventionsareusuallyhighlyeffectiveformsofaidinnormalcircumstances:Subsidiesgivendirectlytofamiliestobespentofchildren’seducationandhealthEducationvouchersforschooluniforms&te*tbooksTeachingselectedilliterateadultstoreadandwriteDewormingdrugsandvitamin/nutritionalsupplementsVaccinationandHIV/AIDSpreventionprogramsIndoorspraysagainstmalariaanti-mosquitobednettingSuitablefertilizersCleanwatersuppliesChapter1UnderstandingDevelopment答题2——左右派：Left-wing——State〔左派—强调国家〕Right-wing——Market〔右派—强调市场〕Left-wing左派：凯恩斯经济学、构造主义经济学、国家统治经济论、Dependencytheory依附理论Right-wing右派：古典政治经济学、构造调整政策、Modernizationtheory现代化理论填空3、4：1、TheProgressofDevelopmentDevelopmenthascomealongwayinthepast6decades.Asbothanenterpriseandascholarlydiscipline,developmentbecamesignificantintheperiodimmediatelyfollowingtheWorldWarⅡ.InternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment(whichsooncametobeknownastheWorldBank)wascreatedforthetaskofrebuildingcountries-andinEurope,acontinent-thathavebeenshatteredbywar.Inthosedays,developmentwasconsideredlargelysynonymouswithindustrialization.Itwas,inshort,aboutgettingricherormoreprosperous,andprosperitywasmeasuredindollarfigures.Industrializationandinparticular,acountry’scapacitytomanufacturefinishedgoods,wasseenasessential.AsianandAfricancountriescametoindependencefromformercolonialempiresofEurope,andwereeagerfortworeasonstospeeduptheirdevelopment.Onewastoprovidebetterlivesfortheircitizen.Thesecondwastoconsolidatetheirindependencetoconvertthepoliticalqualityintoaneconomicequalitythatwouldearnthemrespectandsenseofself-dignitytheyfelthadbeendeniedthemundercolonialism.Thescholarlyliteratureofthetimeonlyreinforcedthispush:developmentwasaboutusingthestatetospearheadtheprocessofmodernizingthesocietyandraisingitsincomes.2、DevelopmentTheoryinthePostwarPeriodHavingbeguntoponderthepossibleshapeofthepostwarworld,theAlliedleadersheldaconferencetodiscussthestructuretheywouldgivetotheworldeconomy.ThismeetingtookplaceinahotelinBrettonWoods,NewHampshire.Theconferencewouldprovidetheblueprintforpostwarcapitalisteconomy.Chiefamongtheconcernsoftheparticipantswasthedesiretocreateafavorableinternationaltradingenvironment.TheywantedtoputbehindthemtheconditionsthathadworsenedtheDepression.Monetaryinstabilityandlackofcredithadinhibitedtradeamongnationsandledgovernmentstoadoptprotectionistpolicieswhentheycouldnotpayfortheirimports.Tothisend,theconferencegaverisetotheIMFandInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment,thelatterofwhichbecameknownastheWorldBank.In1947,theBrettonWoodSystem,asitcametobeknown,wasroundedoutbytheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT).布雷顿森林会议〔BrettonWoodsConference〕最重要的3大产出：Discussthestructureofthefutureworldeconomy,provideablueprintforthepostwarcapitalisteconomyCreateafavorableinternationaltradingenvironmentTurnouttobeGATT.GiverisetoIMFandWB.Chapter3ParticipatoryProjectProcess答题3——参与式工程的理论过程的十大步骤TheoreticalProcess：Profiledevelopment背景信息材料准备Participationanalysis参与分析Problemanalysis问题分析Potentialanalysis潜在性分析Objectiveanalysis目标分析Alternativesanalysis选择方案分析Program-formulationandprojectplandescription工程方案描述〔逻辑框架〕Implementationdesign实施方案设计Monitoringandevaluation监测与评估10、Re-planning再方案答题4——参与式工程的实践过程的五大步骤PracticalProcess：Projectapplicationstage工程申请阶段Projectfeasibilitystudystage工程可行性研究阶段Projectapprovalstageandsigningofthefinancialagreement工程财政支持与签署阶段Projectimplementationstage工程实施阶段Projectconclusionandthere-planningstage工程完毕和再方案阶段填空5：:1.3ProblemanalysisTheterm“problem〞isinterpretedasadiscrepancybetweene*pectationandreality;orbetween“whatisnow〞and“whatwillbeinthefuture〞.“Whatwillbeinthefuture〞reflectstheobjectiveanorganizationwantstoachieveafterthesolutionofacertainproblem.Thepresenceofanunresolvedproblemoranunsatisfiede*pectationcanbeseenasaprobleminitself.Itmightcomefromtheshortageofhumanresourceorphysicalresource;orthelackofunderstandingofthecomple*socialandeconomicsituation,orthelackofe*perience.Afteralltheproblemshavebeenlistedout,peoplecometorealizethatitisimpossibletosolvealltheproblemsatonetime;andnotalloftheproblemshavethesamesignificance.Thereforeitisnecessarytoconductasystematicanalysisabouttheseproblems.Firstthe“coreproblem〞hastobefoundout,whichusuallylocatesatthecentralpositionofthe“problemtree〞.Thisproblemtreereflectsthecause-effectrelationshipsamongtheseproblems.Theseproblemscomefromdifferentprofessionalfieldssuchasnaturalscience,socialscience,economicscienceandenvironmentalscience.Theproblemanalysisnotonlyrevealsthecause-effectframework,thecoreproblem,butalsothoseproblemsleadingtoandfromthecoreproblem.Publicparticipationisveryimportant.Thefarmersknowmoreabouttheirownsituationsandtheirownproblemsthananyoutsiders.Iftheycometorealizethattheobjectiveoftheprojectistosolvetheirownproblems,theywillbecomemoreactiveinparticipatinginotherstepsoftheproject,especiallytheimplementationprocess.填空6：:1.5ObjectiveanalysisAnobjectivecanberegardedasane*pectedorplannedoutcomewhichwillbeachievedatsometimeinthefuture.Objectiveanalysisdepictsthepossibilityofthisfutureachievementthroughsolvingthee*istedproblems.Thispossibilitydeterminestheprincipleandthepotentialoutcomeoftheproject.Thisprocessissimplyconvertingthe“negativedescription〞oftheproblemIntothe“positivee*pectation〞ofthereality,I.e.thedescriptionoftheobjective.Inthisway,the“problemtree〞whichdepictsthecause-effectrelationshipisconvertedintothe“objective-tree〞whichshowsthemeans-endrelationship.Chapter4ParticipatoryDevelopmentPlanning填空7：:Asanacademicfield,developmentstudiescanbedividedintothreebranches:developmenttheory,developmentresearchanddevelopmentpractice.Oneofthetopicswhichisoftenmentionedwithinthedevelopmentresearchisdevelopmentinterventionprocess,whichinturn,consistsofdevelopmentpoliciesanddevelopmentprojects.Usually,adevelopmentprojectinvolvesthefollowingstages:baselinesurvey,analysis,design,implementation,monitoringandevaluation.Theparticipationofdifferentstakeholdersinthesevariousstagescoversmanyimportantresearchissues.Developmentcantakeplaceattheregionallevel(oneorseveralcounties,onorseveraltownships),oratthecommunitylevels(oneorseveralvillages).Soaregionalplanningisanintegrationandcoordinationfortheplanningofalltherelatedareas.Theoutcomeofaparticipatorydevelopmentplanningisnotatraditionaleconomicblueprint,oratechnologicaldesign,butaconcretedevelopmentproject,whichcanbecarriedout.Theplanningandmanagementofdevelopmentisanimportantpartofthecontentofdevelopmentpractice.Participatorydevelopmentplanningisaprocessparticipatedbystakeholdergroups.ItisbothProblem-Solvingorientedandaction-orientedandtakesthedevelopmentprojectasitsfinaloutcome.加1——Developmentintervention:DevelopmentpoliciesDevelopmentprojectsInternationallevelNationallevelProvinciallevelCountylevelTownshiplevelVillagelevel(communitylevel)加2：Paradigm式Neighborhood居民点答题5——规划程序的5个阶段：5.2PlanningproceduresHeplanningprocedurescanbedividedintoseveralstages.Macro-levelstage宏观水平阶段〔政府〕Department-levelstage部门水平阶段Regional-levelstage区域水平阶段County-levelstage县级水平阶段Micro-levelstage围观水平阶段〔community/village〕填空8——FunctionsofParticipatoryDevelopmentPlanning参与式开展规划的三大功能：:MeetingtheurgentneedsofpoorpeopleImplementingthenationalpolicyonpovertyreductionServingasanimplementationtoolforthelarge-scaledevelopmentproject答题6——为什么在规划过程中经常放弃“理性〔rational〕〞而追求“满意〞：9.2RationplanningRationisacoreissueforplanning.Whenwetalkabouttherationalityofanapproach,wemeanitisbasedonanalysesandprinciples,notonfeelingsandjudgments.Arationalgoalmeanstheapproachwillbringlargestoutputgivenacertaininputofobtainacertainoutputwiththesmallestinput.Thisconceptcomesdirectlyfromtheideaofmostopticalresourceallocationineconomy.Arationalapproachinvolvesthefollowingactivities:Theidentificationanddefinitionofaproblem;Theclassificationofgoalsandvalueswhicharerelatedwiththeproblem;Identifyingthenumberofgoalsandofsolutionsfortheproblem;Predicttheoutcomeofeachalternative;Comparisonbetweendifferentalternatives;Identifyingonealternativewhoseoutcomeisclosesttothegoal,orsolvetheproblemtothelargeste*tent,orismostcost-effective.However,wecanseethatrationalityisanidealdescription.Inrealitywearelimitedbyourabilitytoprocesstheinformation,andwecannotanalyzealltheinformationaboutallalternatives.Underthiscircumstance,peoplewillNeglectthoseproblemswhichtheyarenotinterestedin;Adjustthescopeoftheproblemaccordingtothelearninge*perienceofdecision-makinginthepastGiveuprationalityandpursuit“satisfaction〞Satisfactionisanimportantconceptwhichcanbeusedtoe*plainmanyindividualandorganizationalbehaviors.Itmeanspeopleacceptsolutionsthatare“goodenough〞,insteadofvalue-ma*imizing.Thisisadailyconditionformostcommonpeople.Whenpeoplemakeadecision,itisoftenacompromisewhichcanbeacceptedbyalltheparties,sinceitisabsolutelyimpossibletoachieveallthegoalstothesamee*tent.Peopletrytofindarationalsolutioninlife.Buteveniftheyknowwhatarationalsolutionis,theyoftenchoosesatisfactoryresultsinsteadofrationalresultwhichwillbringthelargestbenefit.PlanninginChinaistoagreate*tentcontrolledbythegovernmentofficials.Someoftheplanscanneverbefunded.Theplannersseldomhaveopportunitytousetherationalapproach.Somelarge-scaleplanning(e.g.urbanplanning)createstheconditionfortheapplicationofrationalapproaches.HoweverinruralChina,theplannersmighttrytousetherationallogictoanalyzeproblemsorfindthesolutions,butseldomcanuseitfordecision-making.答题7——分析规划者在规划过程中如何面对不确定性.如何减少不确定性.〔不是为什么！！！〕：9.4UncertaintyinplanningTheidealsituationofmakingdecisionsisoneofcertainty,thatis,asituationinwhichaplannercanmakeaccuratedecisionsbecausetheoutcomeofeveryalternativeisknown.Afarmorecommonsituationisoneofrisk,conditionsinwhichtheplannerisabletoestimatethelikelihoodofcertainoutcomes.Whathappensifyouhaveadecisionwhereyouarenotcertainabouttheoutcomeandcan’tevenmakereasonableprobabilityestimates?Wecallsuchasituationuncertainty.Thepurposeofplanningistoreducetheuncertaintyinthefuture,butplanningitselfhasbeenundertheinfluenceofuncertainty.Uncertaintycanbereduced,butneverbethoroughlyeradicated.Inmakingstrategicselection,planerscannoteasilypredictandcontrolwhatwillhappeninthefuture.Whattheycandoistoanalyzethedatarelatedwiththecurrentsituation.Apparently,thismightreducethereliabilityofplanning.Thereare2waystosolvethisproblem.Oneistofindthesourcesofuncerta