第6章生产和企业组织

第第6生产系NatureNature生产函Theproductionfunctionspecifies(指定)theumoutputthatcanbeproducedwitha tyofItisdefinedforagivenstateofengineeringandtechnicalknowledge.ItlookslikeQ=F(K,L, Q=Qisthe tyofsomeproductsyouwanttoproduce.Kisthecapitalor ntandequipmentthatyouwillneedfortheproduction.Listhenumberofemployeesor tyofRisacatch-all(包括所有的)termforotherthingslikerawmaterials原料andenergy.Fisthestateofthecurrent 专业术Theproductionfunctionspecifiesumoutputthatcanbeproducedwitha tyofinputsforagivenstateofengineeringandtechnicalknowledge.。②在给定的 背景知在给定的工程和技术知识条件的含义Forexample,wecanimagineabookoftechnicalspecificationsthatshowstheproductionfunctionforgenerating 关于生产函数的不同认 总产量和平均产TotalTotalproductdesignatesthetotalamountofoutputproducedinphysicalunits.Averageproductequalstotalproductdividedbytotalunitsofinput.

总产量和平均产量关系图

总产量下量增

边际产Themarginalproduct(边际产量ofaninputsuchaslaboristheextraoutputaddedby1extraunitofthatinputwhileotherinputsareholdconstant. 边际产量图Add1unitofsomeinputAdd1unitofsomeinputandholdotherinputsconstantTheMPisextraoutput.++1Q +1Q最大产劳动的边际产量的含义是：投入N+1单位劳动时的最大产量与投入N单位劳动时的增加1单位劳动后，所有的分工都要按最优方式重新安排，然后得出投入N+1劳动 of MarginalproductMarginalproduct(perunitof 0

边际产量和总产量关系图

总产量速上

总产量下生产的比例生产要求投入多种要素，而且要间通入要间的比例性高一些，有些则要求 递减规Inproductiontheory,wehavetofirstrememberthatintheshortrun,capitalisfixedbutfactorslikelaborarevariable.Atsomepointthen,theextraormarginalproductofeachadditionalworkermustbegintodecrease.That’sthelawofdiminishing 递减图Marginal一种投入的数量由0逐Marginal Q1 规 问Whatwouldhappentowheatproductionland,labor,water,andotherinputswereincreasedbythesameproportion(比例)?Thesequestionsrefertothereturnstoscale a>

规 图

?a>ba<ba=Q 规 的三种情Therearethreeimportantcasesofreturnstoscale:constantreturnstoscale(规 不变increasingreturnstoscale(规 递增decreasingreturnstoscale(规 递减 规 不Constantreturnstoscaledenoteacasewhereachangeinallinputsleadstoaproportional成比例的changeinManyhandicraftindustries手艺行业)showconstantreturns.QKaQK 1980年代的银行兼 ysts(分析家)thoughtthatthemergers(兼并wouldreducetheunitcostsofbankingdramatically(引人注目地).Studiesfoundthatthemergersdidnotsignificantly(显著地)decreasecosts.Onepossible nationisreturnstoscaleoverabroadspectrum(光谱)ofoutput. 规 递Increasingreturnstoscalearisewhenincreaseinallinputsleadstoamore-than-proportional(更大的比例)increaseinthelevelofoutput.QKaQK 影响规 递增的因Relatedlaborspecialization专业化managerial管理的efficientby-products(副产品andothersuch TheB-2or"StealthThePentagon(五角大楼)originallywantedtobuild132ofthe nesatacostof$580millionper ButtheSecretaryofDefense( slashed(大幅度削减)thePentagon’srequesttoonly75bombers(轰炸机).Theresult:Thecost nesoared高涨toover$800millionduetothelossof 规 递Decreasingreturnstoscaleoccurswhenabalanced(平衡的)increaseofallinputsleadstoaless-than-proportional更小的比例)increaseintotaloutput.QKaQK 导致规 递减的原Causesofdiseconomies不经济of ntmaygettoobigforeffectiveworkersmaybegintofeelalienated疏远的)fromtheirjobs. 的汽车工Inrecentyears,GM–theworld’scorporationhasfounditselfwithbothadecliningmarketshare(市场份额)andasubstantial(实际上的)costdisadvantageInfact,GM’slaborcostspercarare$800morethanFord’sand$500morethan 生产Economistsoftenthinkthatmostproductionactivitiesshouldbeabletoattainconstantreturnstoscale.Ifincreasingreturnsprevailed(流行),thelargerscaleofinputsandproductionwouldleadtogreaterproductivity. 短期和长Wedefinetheshortrun(短期asaperiodinwhichfirmscanadjustproductionbychangingvariablefactors(可变要素)suchasmaterialsandlaborbutcannotchangefixedfactors(固定要素)suchascapital.Thelongrun(长期isaperiodlongsothatallfactorsincludingcapitalbe “短期和长期”的说 技Technologicalchangereferstoimprovements(改进)intheprocessesforproducinggoodsandservices,changesinoldproducts,orintroduction(引入)ofnewproducts.Processinnovation(工艺创新engineeringknowledgeimprovestechniquesforexistingProductinnovation(产品创新):neworimprovedproductsareintroducedinthe ce市场 技 改变生产函20051995shiftsproductionfunctionupward.

P 产品创Seeingandhearing背景知 总量生产函Q=F(K,Qisthetotaloutput;Kisthecapital;Listhelabor.ThefamousCobb-DouglasproductionY=AKY=AK0.25L1- C-D生产函数的规模Y=AK0.25L1-Y=AK0.25L1-2Y=A(2K)0.25(2L)1-1.0025Y≈A(1.01K)0.25L1-1.0075Y≈AK0.25(1.01L)1- 生产力的测Wecanusetheaggregateproductionfunctiontomeasureacountry’sproductivityandtechnologicalchange.Inmeasuringproductivity,wedenotelaborproductivityastheamountofoutputperunitoflabor;capitalproductivityasoutputperunitofcapital;andtotalfactorproductivity(全要素生产力asoutputunitoftotalinputsofcapitaland 的经验数Totalfactorproductivityhasbeenincreasingthroughout贯穿thiscentury.Thecapitalstock资本存量hasgrowingfasterthanthenumberofCapital’srateofreturnhasremainedaboutthesame.Inthelasttwodecades,allmeasuresofproductivityhaveshownamarkedgrowthslowdown( 技术进步贡献的测 企业的本Whydoesproductiongenerallytake infirms:ToexploiteconomiesofmassproductionToraiseresourcesforlarge-scaleTomanagetheproduction 三种企业组织形TheTheIndividualProprietorship个人所有制Thepartnership合伙制TheCorporation公司制现代公司 特Theownership所有权ofacorporationisdeterminedbytheownershipofthe’scommonstock(普 Inprinciple,theshareholders股东controlthecompaniestheyown.Thecorporation’smanagersanddirectors(董事)havethelegalpowertomakedecisionsforthecorporation. 公司制的利Thecorporationmayhaveperpetual永久的)succession(连续性)orexistence.Thecorporation’smanagerscanmakedecisionsquickly.Corporatestockholdersenjoylimitedliability( eisdoublytaxed双重征税

背景知公司组织要点赋予权利必予以监

背景知 组织经济Economistspointto(表明theimportanceoftransactioncosts(成本，费用)indeterminingtheboundaries(边界)betweenfirmandEconomichistoryhasshownthevitalimportanceoforganizationalefficiencyandinnovationinincreasingproductivity. 的问 的见按照的见解，是因为利用市场价格机制有成本（费用），而利用企业组织生产可以节约成本。 自己并没有给费用下定义。此后的学者大概是遵循的传统，都不愿意给费用下一个明确的定义，即便