向朝红 语言学概论课堂重点笔记

本文格式为Word版，下载可任意编辑——向朝红语言学概论课堂重点笔记Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsaremade,transmitted,andreceived.

>Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundsystemsoflanguages.Itisconcernedwiththelinguisticpatterningofsoundsinhumanlanguages,withitsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andto

explainthevariationsthatoccur.Phonologicalprocesses

Assimilation:/can//tan/tenth/ninth/sink//mink//fivepast//loveto//hasto//ascanbeshown//losefive-nil/edgetoedge(seep61)

Phonologicalprocessisaprocessinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.Thechangeisconditionedortriggeredbyafollowingsoundoraprecedingsound.Rules:

voicedfricative→voiceless/______voiceless,e.g.loveto[-nasal]→[+nasal]/_____________[+nasal](nasalizationrule[-dental]→[+dental]/___________[+dental](dentalization)[-velar]→[+velar]/_____________[+velar](velarization)/s/appearsaftervoicelesssounds,e.g./t/,/k/

/z/appearsaftervoicedsounds(includingallvowels),e.g./d,g//???appearsaftersibilants,e.g./s,z,?,?,t?,d?/

VIII.Syllables1.Syllablestructure

Identifythesyllabicstructuresofthefollowingwordsfollowingtheexampleonp69.clasp,table,go,ours

clasp:onesyllable,onset(k,l),rhyme(nucleus:a,coda:sp)

table:twosyllables(tei,bl),onset(t,b),rhyme(nucleus:ei,l;coda:b)go:onesyllable,onset(g),rhyme(nucleus:ou)ours:rhyme(nucleus:au?;coda:z)2.sonorityscale

Rankthesonorityscaleofthefollowingsoundsk,l,a,n,z

mostsonoroustoleastsonorous:vowels(?),approximants(l),nasals(n),fricatives(z),stops(k).

Note:exception[spl-][spr-],etc.

3.syllabificationandthemaximalonsetprinciplesDecidewhichofthesyllabificationisacceptable.

Country:a./k?ntr??/b./k?n?tr?/c./k??ntr?/

TheMaximalonsetprinciple:whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.

IX.Stress

Readaloudthefollowingexamplesanddiscusswhatfactorsmaycausethechangeinthestressofaword/sentence.

adancinggirl,garage,the,exhibition,produce,integral,Ilikeyou.

history,dialectaldifferences(e.g.RPandGA),wordclass,wordmeaning,notional/functionalnatureofwords.

Summary:SpeechSoundsI.Consonants

II.VowelsIII.IPA

IV.Phonemes,allophones,coarticulation,assimilation,phonologicalanalysisandprocessesVII.SyllableVIII.StressSession4:LexiconReadthefollowingverseandansweringroupsoffourthe“why〞questionsintheverse.Andwhyisitthatwriterswrite,butfingersdon'tfing,grocersdon'tgroce,andhammersdon'tham?

Ifthepluraloftoothisteeth,whyisn'tthepluralofbooth,beeth?Onegoose,2geese.So,onemoose,2meese?Ischeesethepluralofchoose?Onemouse,2mice.Onelouse,2lice.Onehouse,2hice?

Ifteacherstaught,whydidn'tpreacherspraught?Ifavegetarianeatsvegetables,whatdoesahumanitarianeat?Whydopeoplereciteataplay,andplayatarecital?Shipbytruckorcarandsendcargobyship?Havenosesthatrunandfeetthatsmell?Parkondrivewaysanddriveonparkways?

>>AllthewhyquestionsaboveshowpartofthenatureofEnglishwords.

Whyquestioninstanza1,2and3:irregularitiesinEnglishwordformation,e.g.n–vconversion,singular–pluralconversion.

Whyquestioninstanza4:flexibilityofwordclassofEnglishwordsi.e.averbcanbeusedasanounviceversa,andthemeaningofacompoundworddoesn’tnecessarilyhavesthtodowithitscomponents.I.Whatisword?

Topic1:Sensesof“word〞

“Wordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopausesorblanks.〞(p76)

“Wordisthecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms,aunitofvocabulary,alexicalitem,oralexeme.〞(p77)

e.g.boy,boys/write,writes,wrote,writing,written

“Wordisagrammaticalunitbetweenmorphemeandwordgroup.〞(p77)e.g.

sentenceclausewordgroup/phrasewordmorphemeTopic2:Identificationofwords

Examples(1)good/*doog(2)happy/*ha-a-ppy;disillusion/*dis-a-illusion(3)A:Noonewouldgoshoppinginsuchacrowdedsupermarket.B:exactly.Tfeedback

(1)stability:theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordhavelittlepotentialforrearrangement.

(2)Relativeuninterruptibility:newelementsarenotallowedtobeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.

(3)Aminimumfreeform:thesmallestunitthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutterance.Then,howabout“a〞,“the〞.Topic3:Classificationofwords

A:variablewords,orderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms,part

ofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.

B:invariablewords,donothaveinflectiveendings.

Takealookatthetwogroupsofwordsanddecidewhythey’reputintoadifferentgroup.Tfeedback

A:lexicalwords,whichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,alsocalledcontentwords/notionalwords,open-classwords.

B:grammaticalwords,whichexpressgrammaticalmeanings,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns,alsocalledfunctionwords,close-classwords.

Particles:includeinfinitivemarket“to〞,thenegativemarker“not〞,andthesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs,suchas“getby〞,“doup〞,“lookback〞.

Pro-form:refercollectivelytotheitemsinasentencewhichsubstituteforotheritemsorconstructions;includepro-adjective,pro-verb,pro-adverb,pro-locative.

Determiners:wordswhichareusedbeforethenounincludingitspremodifiers;includingpredeterminers(e.g.all,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,one-third,one-fifth,etc.),centraldeterminers(e.g.this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,their,etc.),postdeterminers(e.g.next,last,past,other,additional;many,afew,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,agreatdealof,agreatnumberof,etc.);predeterminers+centraldeterminers+postdeterminers(e.g.alltheirtrouble/*theiralltrouble,allthefiveboys/*fivetheallboys).II.Theformationofword

Topic1:Morphemeandmorphologythenumberofmorphemesineachofthefollowingwords:chairman/amplify/distempered

Tfeedback:chairman:chair+manamplify:ample+ifydisappointment:dis+temper+ed

Morpheme:thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.

Morphology:abranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed,e.g.book(singular)+s→books(plural).Topic2:Typesofmorphemes

Workingroupsoffive,numberandnamethemorphemesofeachword.unhappinessperceivesleptfeetchildrenblackboard>>Unhappiness

un:boundmorpheme,prefixationhappi(y):freerootmorphemeness:boundmorpheme,suffixation

perceiveper:boundmorpheme,prefixationceive:boundmorpheme,boundrootsleptslep(sleep):boundrootmorphemeorstemt:boundmorpheme,inflection

feetfoot:boundrootmorpheme,stemee:boundmorpheme,inflectionchildrenchild:boundrootmorphemeren:boundmorpheme,inflectionblackboardblack:freemorphemeboard:freerootmorpheme?Topic3:Inflectionandwordformation

Identifythetypeofwordformationforthefollowingwords(i.e.inflection,derivation,compound)

books/impossible/went/Mary’s/goodness/pain-killer/playboy

>>Inflection:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionof

Itcannotbeusedtogeneralizethingsofsimilarfeatures.>Itcannotbeappliedtodescribeabstractthings.

TheTheoryofthe“SemioticTriangle〞:therelationbetweenawordandathingitreferstoisnotdirect.Itismediatedbyconcept.ThistheorywasproposedbyOgdenandRichards.

ConceptSymbolThing

Drawadiagramtoshowtherelationshipamongword,conceptandthingusingtheinformationgiven.Word:desk

Concept:apieceoffurnituretypicallyhavingaflatorslopingtopforwritingandoftendrawersorcompartments.Thing:Tfeedback

Concept

DeskProblems:

1.Itdealswithonlywordsratherthanmorphemes,e.g.uncompromisingly.2.Somewordsdon’trefertothings,buthaveasense.

3.There’remanypolysemouswordsinEnglishandtheirrelationshipcan’tbeexplainedbythesemiotictriangletheory.2.Senserelations

Sensestandsfortheconceptualmeaning.Itisequivalentto“concept〞.Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference,e.g.but,if.

Senserelations:Wordsareindifferentsenserelationswitheachother.There’rethreekindsofsenserelations,i.e.synonymy,antonymy,andhyponymy.Synonymy:thesamenessrelation.

Antonymy:oppositenessrelationincludinggradable,complementaryandconverserelation.

Hyponymy:inclusivenessrelationbetweenasuperordinateanditshyponyms.Workinpairsanddecidethesenserelationsofthefollowingwords.underground/tube,good/bad,life/death/,cattle/cow,bird/ostrichTfeedback

Underground/tube:synonymyGood/bad:gradableantonymy

Life/death:complementaryantonymyCattle/cow:hyponymyBird/ostrich:hyponymy3.Componentialanalysis

Semanticfeatures/components:themeaningofawordisnotanunanalysablewhole.Workinpairsandmakeacomponentialanalysisofthefollowingwords.Father,mother,son,daughter,take,give,die,kill,murderTfeedback

father=PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)

mother=PARENT(x,y)&~MALE(x)son=CHILD(x,y)&MALE(x)

daughter=CHILD(x,y)&~MALE(x)take=CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)))give=CAUSE(x,(~HAVE(x,y)))die=BECOME(x,(~ALIVE(x)))

kill=CAUSE(x,(BECOME(y,(~ALIVE(y)))))

murder=INTEND(x,(CAUSE(x,(BECOME(y,(~ALIVE(y)))))))Problemsofcomponentialanalysis:

1.Manywordsarepolysemous.Theyhavemorethanonemeaning,consequentlytheywillhavedifferentsetsofsemanticcomponents.

2.Somesemanticcomponentsareseenasbinarytaxonomies.Butsomeantonymsaregradable.

3.Themetal-languageusedishardforthosewhodon’tknowthemeta-languagetounderstand.

4.Tounderstandasentence,weneedalsoknowledgeaboutitssyntacticstructure,e.g.Themanchasedthedog./Thedogchasedtheman.

smartman+smartwoman=romancesmartman+dumbwoman=affairdumbman+smartwoman=marriagedumbman+dumbwoman=pregnancyIII.Sentencemeaning1.Anintegratedtheory

Compositionality:Themeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningsoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombined.

Asemantictheoryconsistsoftwoparts:adictionaryandsetofprojectionrules.Thedictionaryprovidesthegrammaticalclassification(e.g.Vtr,Nc)andsemanticinformationincludinginformationofamoregeneralnatureshownbysemanticmarkers(e.g.MALE,FEMALE)andword-specificinformationindicatedbydistinguishers.Theprojectionrulesareresponsibleforcombiningthemeaningsofwordstogether.(seepp176-178)Problems:

?Thedistinctionbetweensemanticmarkeranddistinguisherisnotveryclear.

?Therearecasesinwhichthecollocationofwordscannotbeaccountedforbygrammaticalmarkers,semanticmarkersorselectionrestrictions,e.g.Thegirlsgaveherowndressaway./*Thegirlgavehisowndressaway.

?Semanticmarkersareelementsofanartificialmeta-languageandtheirmeaningmustbeexplained,too,tomakeitunderstood.2.Logicalsemantics

Predicatelogic:studiestheinternalstructureofsimplepropositions.Itincludestwoparts:argumentandpredicate.Anargumentisatermwhichreferstosomeentityaboutwhichastatementisbeingmade.Andapredicateisatermwhichascribessome