psy-review-高隽心理学导论期末复习

Introduction •ThedefinitionofpsychologyThescientificstudyofbehaviorofindividualsandtheirmentalprocessesScientificmethod:alogicofinquiry&orderlystepstoanalyzeandsolveproblems&acquireknowledge.(“Evidence-based”&“Self-correcting”)Behavior:actionstakenbyorganismstoadjusttotheirenvironment.(“Observable)Mentalprocesses:theworkingsofhumanmind,suchasthinking,memory.(“internalworld”)Individual:thetargetofthepsychologicalanalysis(“individualdifferences”)APA’sversion:“Psychologyisadiversediscipline,groundedinscience,butwithnearlyboundlessapplicationsineverydaylife”•FourgoalsofpsychologyUsingscientificmethodstoDescribe:makingaccurateandobjectiveobservationsaboutbehavior/phenomenonExplain/Understand:findingconsistentpatternsofbehaviors&mentalprocesses(innerdeterminantsandexternalones)Predict:makingstatementsaboutthelikelihoodofcertainbehaviororrelationshipControl/Influence:makingcertainbehavior/mentalprocessesappearordisappear(centralandmostpowerfulgoal)•SevenperspectivesandtheirmajorstancesPsychodynamicSigmundFreudandneo-psychodynamic–Theunconscious,innerforces&conflictsarethemaincausesunderlyingourbehaviors–Tensionreductionisthepurposeofallbehaviors BehavioralJohnWatsonandB.F.Skinner–Onlytheobservablebehaviorsaretargets–Stimuli-Responserelationship:environmentmatters–AnimalstudiesHumanistic“Thethirdwave” –Allmenstrivetoseekpositiveself-developmentandarecapableofmakingmeaningfulchoices(peopleareneitherdrivenbythepowerful,instinctiveforcespostulatedbytheFreudiansnormanipulatedbytheirenvironments,asproposedbythebehaviorists.)CarlRogers;AbrahamMaslow:self-actualizationCognitiveSeethroughthe“blackbox”:challengingthebehaviorism–Subjectiverealitymatters:S-C-R–Thoughts(andalltheprocessesofknowing)arebothresultsandcausesofovertactions–Thedominatingperspective+neuroscience BiologicalHowdothefunctionsofgenes,thebrain,thenervoussystemandtheendocrinesystemimpactbehaviorsandmentalprocesses?–Reductionism:eventhemostcomplexbehaviorscanbeexplained(?)bychemicalandelectricalactivitiesEvolutionaryDarwin:lawofnaturalselection–Metalabilitiesevolvedtosolvecentraladaptiveproblems:eating,mating,keepingsafeSocial-culturalSocialandculturalfactorsthatshapeourbehaviorsandmentalprocesses,e.g.religiousbelief–Focus:toidentifyandcomparemeaningfuldiversities,i.e.,cross-culturaldifferencesandtheirunderlyingmechanisms–ThedefinitionofcultureAsetofattitudes(e.g.politicalormoralbeliefs,values,socialknowledge,stereotypes,andsuperstitions),behaviors(e.g.schemes,rules,customs,fashions)andsymbols(e.g.meaningfulicons,objects,colorsandarchitectures)thataresharedbyagroupofpeopleandpasseddowntothenextgeneration(Shiraev&Levy,2013,p.3)–Canbebothexplicitorimplicit–Importantclassifications:e.g.,traditionalvs.non-traditionalcultures,individualisticvs.collectivisticcultures

ResearchmethodThedefinitionofscientificmethodsandkeyfeaturesScientificMethodsDefinition:AgeneralsetofproceduresforgatheringinformationandinterpretingevidencetoacquireknowledgeMinimizesourcesoferrors&yielddependableconclusionsThethreecharactersofscientificmethod:control,operationaldefinitionandrepetitionOperationaldefinitionDefiningaconceptintermsofspecificoperationsorproceduresusedtomeasureitortodetermineitspresenceTheoryandHypothesisTheory(nottruth)Anorganizedsetofconceptsthat(temporarily)explainasetofphenomena(basedonpriorscientificevidence) Determinism(theunderlyingphilosophicalbasis):todiscovercausalfactorsandlawfulpatternsHypothesisAtentative&testablestatementabouttherelationshipbetweencausesandconsequences/effectsHypothesistestingisthecentralthemeinmostmodernpsychologyresearchExperimentalmethods:basiclogic&keyconceptsDefinition:Aquantitativeapproachtodiscoverthepresumedcause-and-effectrelationshipCoreidea:ManipulateanindependentvariabletolookforaneffectonadependentvariableVariable:anyfactorthatvariesinamountorkind.Independentvariable:factorsonemanipulates,“cause”Dependentvariable:factorsonemeasures,“effect”Controlledvariable:otherspotentiallyinfluentialfactorsthatarekeptconstantRuleoutthealternativeexplanationsCorrelationalmethods:basiclogic&keyconceptsCorrelationalmethods–Todeterminewhethertwovariablesarerelated–Correlationcoefficient(r):thedegreeofcorrelation(-1.00~1.00)–Limitation:Correlationdoesnotimplycausation!–Tofindpotential“candidates”forinterventionMeasurement–procedureforassigningnumbersorcategoriestoavariable–Reliability:theconsistencyordependabilityofbehavioraldata–Validity:thedegreeofaccuracyofthemeasurement–Differentforms:self-report,observation,usingarchivaldata

TheBiologicalandEvolutionaryBasesofbehavior•TheevolutionarybasesheredityandbehaviorHowpsychologicalfunctionsevolveandpassdowntothenextgenerationsintheprocessofadaptingtotheenvironment?–NaturalselectionandsurvivalofthefittestDarwin’snaturalselectiontheory–TheOriginofSpecies(1859)–Naturalselectionandsurvivalofthefittest1.Thevariationoflivingconditions(&mutation)causedthevariationamongagroupoforganisms(e.g.finches,orpeoplefromdifferentregions)2.Thosewhoadaptedwellproducedmoreoffspring–Implicationsinpsychology:mentalattributesandabilities(e.g.ourmemoryfunctionortendencytogetanxious)evolveaswelltoadapttotheenvironment•Thenaturalselectionprocessmaynottakethousandsofyears–BehavioralGenetics:itsmethodologyandlogicsBehavioralGenetics–Thestudyofthesourcesofindividualdifferences:naturevs.nurture–Theinter-subjectdiscipline:biology&psychology–Measurement:Heritability•Anestimateofthecontributionofinheritancetoagiventraitorfunctioninagroupsample.•Itsvaluerangesfrom0to1.•ThebiologicalbasesthenervoussystemandthebrainWhatpartof&Howthenervoussystemandbrainmakeitpossibletoachieve(whattypeof)psychologicalfunctions?–ThebasicstructureofneuronNeuron:thebasicunitoffunctioning–DiscoveredbySpanishscientistCajalinearly20thcentury–Basicfunctions:•toreceive,processand/ortransmitinformationtoothercellswithinthebody –Over200typesand100billionto1trillioninthebrain–Types:Sensoryneurons,motorneuronsandinterneuronsBasicstructure–Soma:thecellbody,containingthenucleusofthecellandthecytoplasm.Integrationandtransmit–Axon:asingleextendedfiberthattransmitinformationtoterminalbuttons–dendrites:thebranchedfibersthatreceiveincomingsignalfromotherneurons–ThemechanismsofneuraltransmissionwithinandbetweenneuronsTransmissionwithinneurons–Itoccurswhenaneuronisstimulatedbypressure,light,heatorchemicalinformationfromothercells:thechangeofpermeabilityofmembrane&cellpotential–Restingpotential:anegativeelectricalchargemaintainedActionpotential:thechangeinelectricpotentialswhenstimulationreachesthreshold,whichrunsalongtheaxon•Thebalancebetweenpotassiumionsandsodiumions–All-or-nonelaw:thesizeoftheactionpotentialsisnotaffectedbyincreaseintheintensityofstimulationbeyondthethresholdlevelSynaptictransmission–Thetransmissionofinformationbetweenneurons–Synapse:asmallgapbetweenthepresynapticmembrane(terminalbutton)andthepostsynapticmembrane(dendrites)–Neurotransmitters:biochemicalsubstancesinsynapticvesiclesthatstimulateotherneurons–TriuneBrianmodelbyDr.MacleanThree“layers”–Brainstem&thalamus&Cerebellum(ReptilianBrain)Brainstem(housekeeper)–Maintainautonomicprocesses,suchasbreathing,sleeping&awakingCerebellum(PEcenter)–Bodymovements–ProcedurememoryacquisitionThalamus(transfercenter)–Passingsensoryinformationtocortex–Limbicsystem(PaleomammalianBrain)Thelimbicsystem:“EmotionalCenter”–Motivation,emotion,memoryHippocampus–Acquisitionoflong-termmemories–H.M.’scaseAmygdala–Detect&evaluatethreats–FormationofemotionalmemoryHypothalamus–Motivationregulation –Maintaininternalbalanceofbody–Neocortex/cerebrum(NeomamalianBrain)MainComposition–Cerebralcortex(×2hemispheres)+CorpusCallosumFourbrainlobes–Frontallobe–Parietallobe–Temporallobe–Occipitallobe–Thelimbicsystem:keycomponentsandfunctionsLimbicsystem(PaleomammalianBrain)Thelimbicsystem:“EmotionalCenter”–Motivation,emotion,memoryHippocampus–Acquisitionoflong-termmemories–H.M.’scaseAmygdala–Detect&evaluatethreats–FormationofemotionalmemoryHypothalamus–Motivationregulation –Maintaininternalbalanceofbody–Neocortex/cerebrum(NeomamalianBrain)–Thefourbrainlobesandtheirbasicfunctions–PlasticityPlasticity–Changesintheperformanceofthebrainbasedonexperiences–Self-healing:collateralsprouting;substitutionoffunctionandneurogenesis

SensationandPerception•Thedistinctionbetweenperformance,competenceandprocessPerformance:ActualbehaviorsCompetence:1.Qualitiesofindividuals2.ToenableorconstrainperformanceProcess:1.Mentalmechanismsunderlyingcertaincompetences2.Universallysharedbyallculturesvs.culturalrealizationoftheseprocesses•TheideaofmoderateuniversalismModerateuniversalism–Basiccognitiveprocesses(e.g.colorsensations)aresharedbythewholespecies–Culturalandsocialfactorsinfluencethedevelopment,contentanduseoftheseprocessesPerceptionwithamoderateuniversalismstance–Socialandculturalfactorsmayaffecthowneuralimpulsesareorganizedintomentalrepresentationsandrecognizedasmeaningfulobjectsoractivities•Theconceptsofsensation,perception,transduction,stimulusandsensoryreceptorSensation:theprocesswherethestimulationofsensoryreceptorsproducesneuralimpulsesthatrepresentinternalorexternalexperiences–Stimulus:anythingthatcanbedetectedbythesensoryorgans,e.g.thelightwave,thechemicalinaperfume–Sensoryreceptors:specializedcellsindifferentsensoryorgansTransduction:theconversionofoneformofphysicalenergytoanotherform,i.e.neuralimpulsesPerception:theoverallprocessofapprehendingobjectsandeventsintheenvironment—tosensethem,identifyandlabelthem,andpreparetoreacttothem.howcanweformtheinnerrepresentationsoftheexternalworldandmakesenseofthem?

1.Organizationalprocesses2.Identificationandrecognitionprocesses•Psychophysics–Absolutethreshold,SensoryAdaptation,Differencethresholds,SignaldetectiontheoryPsychophysics–Thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenphysicalstimuliandthebehaviorormentalexperiencesevoked•AbsoluteThresholds–Theminimumamountofphysicalenergyneededtoproduceasensoryexperience–OD:thestimuluslevelatwhichasensorysignalisdetected50%oftime•SensoryAdaptation–Thediminishingresponsivenessofsensorysystemstoprolongedstimulusinput–Theadaptivevalueoffavoring“new”over“old”Differencethresholds–Thesmallestphysicaldifference(JustNoticedDifference)betweentwostimulirecognizedas“different”–OD:thepointatwhichthestimuliarerecognizedasdifferent50%oftime –Weber’slaw:JNDbetweenstimuliisaconstantfractionoftheintensityofthestandardstimulus•∆I(JND)/I=k(Weber’sconstant)•Signaldetectiontheory(SDT)–“Ihearthatsound”isnotapurelysensoryprocess,butacombinationofsensoryprocessandjudgmentprocess–Twodistinctprocessesinsensorydetection•Sensoryprocess:thequestionof“sensitivity”•Decisionprocess:thequestionof“responsebias”–Basicprocedure:aweakstimuluspresentedinhalfthetrialsVision:visualreceptors,darkadaptationStimulus:light–Aportionofelectromagneticspectrum,varyinginwavelengthsSensoryorgan:eyeThejourney:light-cornea-anteriorchamber-pupil(iris)-retina-receptors-opticnerve-primaryvisualcortex(occipitallobe)-secondaryvisualcortexSensoryreceptors–Rodcells•120millions•Operateswellindarkness–Conecells•6-7millions•Denselypackedinfovea•Operateswellindaylight•Colorsensation:3kinds–Bipolarcells•Connectedwithconesandrodstocollectneuralimpulses–Blindspot/opticdisk•wheretheopticnerveleavestheeyeandnoreceptorsExample:EyeAdaptation•Humaneyeshaveextraordinaryabilitiestoadjusttodifferentlevelsoflightanddarkness–Fromdaylighttodarkness:20-30minutes–Fromdarknesstodaylight:5minutes•DarkAdaptation–Mechanism:therodcellsandconecellsincreasetheirsensitivitytothelightindarknessbyrefillingthephotochemical–rodcellsleadfirstbutconecellslastlonger–Applicationineverydaylife:thepotentiallinkbetweentheuseofheadlightsandtrafficaccidents•BrighterlightusesupthephotochemicalinconecellsPain:painreceptors,twoneuralpathways,gatecontroltheoryTwoneuralpathwaysFast:Myelin-coverednervefibers;Somatosensorycortex—“whereisit”Slow:No-myelin-coverednervefibers;thalamus&limbicsystem—“howserious”RegulationofPain:Gatecontroltheory–Cellsinspinalcordas“gatekeepers”–Receivesignalsfromperipheralnervoussystems&brainManyareasofbrainareinvolvedPerceptionSensation:theprocesswherethestimulationofsensoryreceptorsproducesneuralimpulsesthattriggeredbyinternalorexternalexperiencesPerception:theprocesswhereneuralimpulsesareorganizedintomentalrepresentationsandrecognizedasmeaningfulobjectsoractivities–TwoattentionalprocessAttentionalprocesses•Goaldirectedselectionvs.stimulus-drivencapture–Youmakethechoiceaboutwhereyoudirectyourattention•Themonkeybusinessillusion–Thefeaturesofthestimuliautomaticallycaptureyourattention•Newstimulusintheenvironment•Changeblindness•Attentionalbias:e.g.specificnegativeattentionalbiasinsocialanxiety–GestaltlawFormperception;Figureandground;proximity;Similarity;Goodcontinuation;ClosureTheperceptionsystemalwaystriestocreatemeanings–DepthPerceptionHowtoperceive3-dimentionalworldoutof2dimensionalpatterns–Wehavetorelyondifferenttypesofcuestoachievethisgoal–Binocularcues:comparisonsofthevisualinformationfromtwoeyes•Retinaldisparity:thedisplacementbetweenthehorizontalpositionsofcorrespondingimagesinthetwoeyes,whichincreaseswiththedistanceindepthbetweentwoobjects•Convergence:thedegreetowhichtheeyesturninwardtofixateonanobject,whichincreasesastheobjectsgetscloser(within1meter)Wehavetorelyondifferenttypesofcuestoachievethisgoal–Monocularcues(pictorialcues):usingcuesfromoneeye•Interposition •Relativesize•Linearperspective•Texturegradients–Illusion:conceptandmechanismaswellashowculturalfactorsaffecttheprocessDefinition:ExperienceastimuluspatternthatisinconsistentwithrealityMechanism:usethe“wrong”sensorycuescausedbysharedphysiologyandlifeexperiencesCross-culturaldifferencesinperceiving“illusions”(Muller-lyreillusion)–Segall’sstudies(1966)onvisualillusions:Carpenteredworldhypothesis•Hypothesis:ecologicalcuevaliditydiffersamongdifferentcultures•Subjects:Americanvs.peoplefromtheTerritoryofGuahanBottom-upprocess–Takingsensorydatainandsendingittothebrainforextractionandanalysis–Data-drivenprocessing:thestartingpointisthesensorydataTop-downprocess–Theprocesswhereyourexpectationsaffectperception–Conceptually-drivenprocessing:conceptsinmemoryaffecttheinterpretation(droodles)Theinfluenceofcontexts,expectationsandlifeexperiences–Perceptualset:Areadinesstodetectaparticularstimulusinagivencontext•The“hearinghallucination”:whenyouexpectsomeonetocall•Yourprior

Consciousness•ThedefinitionsofconsciousnessandhardproblemAconceptthatisveryhardtodefineandAMBIGUOUS•Thefivesetsofquestionsconcerningconsciousness–Whatisconsciousnessandwhereisit?–Whatisthecausalrelationshipbetweenconsciousnessandsubstance,esp.thecausalrelationshipbetweenconsciousnessandbrain?–Whatarethefunctionsofconsciousness?–Whatisthephysicalformofconsciousness,esp.whatistheneuralsubstratesofconsciousnessinbrain?–Whataretheappropriatemethodstoexamineconsciousnesstodiscoveritsnature?Thefirst-personmethods(rospection)orthethird-personmethods(suchasneuroimagingtechniques)?Consciousness:somedefinition–“Whatitisliketobesomething”(Nagel,1974)–Thestateofhaving“phenomenalcontent”(Vermans,2013)–Anyofvarioussubjectivestatesofawarenessinwhichmentalcontentsandactivitiescanbereported,suchassensationandperception(APA-CDP).–Atypeofinformationprocessingprocesses,whichdealswithprimarilyvaluableinformationaboutthepatternsoftheworld(Bor,2013)–Fullydependedonintrospectionandsubjectivereports,“non-physical”(Libert,2010)Hardproblemofconsciousness(Chalmers,1995b,seeinBlackmore,2008)–“Howandwhywehavephenomenalexperiences:howphysicalprocessesgiverisetosubjectiveexperiences”.“Easyproblem”:toinvestigatethespecificmechanismsthatcanperformthefunctionofconsciousness,suchasattention”•E.g.“transduction”performedbyconecells•Modelsofconsciousness:S.Freud’smodel,split-brainexperiment,dualmodelConsciousness:differentmodels•S.Freud’smodelofconsciousness–Consciousness:internal&externalstimulus/activitiesofwhichyouareawareof–Preconscious:memoriesthatarenotaccessibleatthemomentbutcanenterconsciousnessUnconsciousness:instinctualneeds,traumaticmemories,taboodesire;repressedyetremainsinfluentialComments:oneofhisgreatestcontributionsistheconceptofunconsciousnessThemodernview:stillevolving•Dualmodel:explicitvs.implicit(unconscious/subconscious/automatic)process–The“splitbrain”experimentbySperryRogerW.Sperry在20世纪中叶突发奇想，他把一只猫的左右大脑之间的联系切断，想看看这只猫在生活中会有什么不一样的变化。结果，这只猫还是如以前一样游刃有余地捉老鼠、睡懒觉，没有半点不正常。Sperry他抓狂了，他用纱布蒙住这只猫的右眼，然后费尽心机地教他走迷宫，直到它能够非常熟练地通过这个迷宫。这时，居心叵测的Sperry放开了猫咪的右眼，紧接着又蒙上了它的左眼，然后把猫咪重新了放入那个早已经非常熟悉的迷宫中，可是，同学们，就在这个时候，奇怪的事情发生了！这只可怜的小猫咪，根本不知道自己该往哪个地方走，对迷宫中的各个地方竟然没有任何印象，很快就在迷宫中迷路了。先前的学到的知识呢？没有了吗？Sperry欣喜若狂，一个巨大的秘密已经在眼前露出了马脚。此时Sperry最想干的事情莫过于立即找一个人过来，切开他的胼胝体（左右大脑相连的神经纤维），然后做各种试验。可惜的是，没有人愿意把自己的脑袋打开，让Sperry切断自己的胼胝体。功夫不负有心人，Sperry等啊等啊，终于有一天，等来了一个天大的好消息。这个机会是由60年代的癫痫病患者给予的。这些癫痫病患者由于大脑病变导致经常性痉挛，脑科医生们一怒之下切断了他们的胼胝体，使得他们的左右大脑分离开来，脑部的病变也就被控制住了，而且，令人惊异的是，这些患者手术之后竟然没有什么异常，反而十分开心。于是，我们英明的Sperry发现良机，他立即邀请这些脑子被人一分为二的“裂脑人”加入了自己的实验，而年轻的心理学家MichaelGazzaniga也加入Sperry的实验，于是史上久负盛名的裂脑人实验拉开了帷幕。裂脑人实验中的奇特现象：1、出现在左右眼睛的视野光束，右撇子裂脑人只能看到右边的光线。如果只呈现左边视野的光束，裂脑人说自己啥都没看见。但是，如果要求患者指出光线出现的位置，他竟然指出了左边的光束，而且，依然说自己看不见左边的光线！这裂脑人是在折腾啥呀？看不见你瞎指啥呀！而实际上，裂脑人并不是在瞎指。他的右脑其实确实看到了光线，但是言语脑－－左脑无法得到右脑的信息，所以表达说没有看到任何东西。2、将生活中非常熟悉的物品放在右撇子裂脑人的右手中，蒙上他的眼睛让他猜猜是什么东西，他会很准确地说出这个物品的名字。但是，奇怪的是，如果将这个东西放在他的左手中，裂脑人却说不出这个东西的名字。但是更加奇怪的是，如果此时让他从面前摆好的一堆东西中挑出刚才放在他左手中的东西，他竟然能挑得出来，但是他还是不知道这是什么东西！当然，在这个过程当中裂脑人一直被蒙着眼睛。右脑记得住触觉信息？3、给右撇子裂脑人的右眼呈现一个图像，裂脑人像第一个实验那样，不能描述这个图像，甚至，他认为自己根本没有看到什么图像。但是让他用手尝试去挑出刚才呈现的东西，他却又能莫名其妙地挑出图像中的物品。这是视觉和触觉的协调实验。4、右撇子裂脑人两只手分别绘制立体图形，左手成绩远远好于右手，右手画的图形毫无立体感可言，简直如同幼儿园的各位同学们所画。看来，果然空间处理能力主要在右脑上。5、突然给一个女裂脑人左脑呈现一个裸体女人的照片，女裂脑人大笑，并说这个是裸体女人。而突然呈现在右脑，这个裂脑人说自己啥都没看见，但是非常明显的是，她开始莫名其妙地格格笑，问她笑的原因，她吞吞吐吐，然后说机器真有趣。这个实验说明虽然右脑无法说出物体的名字，但是存在着情绪反应。6、在暗室内，如果指示裂脑人用左手去拿一个东西，裂脑人能够准确拿到，但是同样的物品放到他手中，他却不能说出是什么。右脑也能理解语言？Whatexactlyisthefunctionof“consciousness”:mental&physicalactivitiescanbealwaysunconsciousvs.canbeconsciousvs.from“conscious”to“unconscious”orviceversa–Differentformsofconsciousnessmayservedifferentfunctions&withdifferentunderlyingmechanisms:e.g.emotions,self-consciousness(es)/self-reflections–Emergencetheory:Aconsequenceofcompetingworkinggroupsofneuralnetworks•SleepSleepisconsistedofdifferent(physical)stages–ThebrainwavesmeasuredbyEEGchangesthroughtimeandshowsarepetitivepattern–Generaltrend:frommorerapidwavestoslowerwavestomorerapidwavesagain–Thesedifferentstagescorrespondtodifferentsubjectiveexperiences–cyclesofsleep,thedifferencesamongwakingstate,NREMandREM;Cyclesofsleep–Acycle:90m+10m;4-6times–NREMstages:4stageswithdifferentfrequenciesofbrainwaves•The3rdand4thstageofsleep:deepersleep•Timefor3rdand4thstagedecreasesinlatercycleREMstage:rapideyemovement•Itaccountsfor20%ofthetotalsleeptime•Brainwaveslooksimilartothoseofwakingstates•TimeofREMincreasesinlatercycles•VividdreamsoccurinREMstageDifferentpartsofnervoussystemareinvolvedduringsleep–DifferentneurotransmittersarereleasedtoregulateREM–NREM:stimulusinputfromsensoryorgansisblockedbythalamus–REM:stimulusinputfromsensoryorgansisblockedbyperipheralneuralsystems(PNS);signalsformovementareinterruptedbyspinalcordThedifferencesbetweenREM,NREMandwakingstates:measuredbyphysical&psychologicalindicators–EMG肌电图(electromyography):low,mediate,high–EEG脑电图(electroencephalograph):high,low,high–EOG眼电图(electro-oculogram):high,low,high–Sensationandperception:internal-oriented&vivid;vagueornone;external-oriented&vivid–Thoughtprocesses:illogical&weird;logical&inactive;logical&active–Motions:inhibited;discontinuous&involuntary;continuous&voluntaryFunctionsofsleep:Functions(hypotheses)–Importantforsurvival:conservationandrestoration•Saveenergy•NREMsleepprovidesopportunitiesforbraintorepairbraincells–Memoryandlearning•TimeforREM&NREM(3rdand4thstage)increaseswhenparticipantswereaskedtolearnsomethingnew•REMmayprovidechancesforthebraintosolidifymemory,blem-solvingstrategiesSleepdeprivation–Rangeofneeds:5-9foradults•NREM&REMdecreaseasonegetsolder–Manynegativeeffects•Especiallyfordoingsimple&repetitivework•Severedeprivationmaycausetemporarypsychosis–ThedeprivationofREMhasasimilareffectasthedeprivationoftheentiresleepcycles–dream:definition,functionsofdream---Freud’sviewandmodernviewsASCWhatisdreamThoughts,imagesorfantasies82%forREMand54%forNREMREManddreamEEGsimilartowakingstatesPartsinCNS/PNSareveryactiveLossofcontrolovermusclesNREManddreamNotsovividandemotionalThecontentofdreamVisualimagesdominateMostofthemarerelatedtodailyconcernsPsychodynamicperspectivesFreud:aroyalroadtotheunconsciousness“every-nightmadness”&Theinterpretationofdreams(1900)Function:symbolicexpressionsofpowerfulunconsciouswishesWishfulfillmentandcensorship(潜意识中的抑制力)Latentvs.manifestcontentSymbolization,condensationanddisplacement–TheconceptofASCAlteredStatesofConsciousnessASCSubjectivedefinition:atemporarychangeinsubjectiveexperiences&differentfromnormalwakingconsciousness.NodistinctivephysiologicalpatternsSomeofthefeaturesDistortioninsensation,e.g.timedistortionChangesinattention,e.g.restrainedattentionChangesinemotion,e.g.strongpositivefeelingsChangesinself-identity,e.g.thesenseoftranscendence–Hypnosis:definitions,Hypnotizabilitydefinition:“Analternativestateofawarenesscharacterizedbyspecialabilitysomepeoplehaveofrespondingtosuggestionwithchangesinperception,memory,motivationandsenseofselfcontrol”(C&Z,2014)Afocusedexperienceofattentionalabsorption.(usuallyfromexternaltointernal)HypnotizabilityHoweasilyindividualisresponsivetostandardizedsuggestionstoexperiencehypnoticreactionsHighvs.lowvs.medianCanbeassessedindividuallyoringroupsettingE.g.StanfordHypnoticSusceptibilityScale

Learning•ThedefinitionofLearningAprocess(basedonexperience)thatresultsinarelativelyconsistentchangeinbehaviorsorbehaviorpotential–learning≠performance–Experiencevs.instinct•Maturationalreadinesssetsthestageforlearning–Splex•Mereexposureeffect:arepeated,unreinforcedexposureissufficienttoenhanceattitudetowardastimulus•Habitation:adecreaseinbehavioralresponsewhenastimulusispresentedrepeatedly•LearnedhelplessnessAmericanpsychologistMartinSeligmaninitiatedresearchonlearnedhelplessnessin1967attheUniversityofPennsylvaniaasanextensionofhisinterestindepression.[4][5]ThisresearchwaslaterexpandedthroughexperimentsbySeligmanandothers.OneofthefirstwasanexperimentbySeligman&Maier:InPart1ofthisstudy,threegroupsofdogswereplacedinharnesses.Group1dogsweresimplyputinaharnessesforaperiodoftimeandwerelaterreleased.Groups2and3consistedof"yokedpairs".DogsinGroup2weregivenelectricshocksatrandomtimes,whichthedogcouldendbypressingalever.EachdoginGroup3waspairedwithaGroup2dog;wheneveraGroup2doggotashock,itspaireddoginGroup3gotashockofthesameintensityandduration,butitsleverdidnotstoptheshock.ToadoginGroup3,itseemedthattheshockendedatrandom,becauseitwashispaireddoginGroup2thatwascausingittostop.Thus,forGroup3dogs,theshockwas"inescapable".InPart2oftheexperimentthesamethreegroupsofdogsweretestedinashuttle-boxapparatus.Allofthedogscouldescapeshocksononesideoftheboxbyjumpingoveralowpartitiontotheotherside.ThedogsinGroups1and2quicklylearnedthistaskandescapedtheshock.MostoftheGroup3dogs–whichhadpreviouslylearnedthatnothingtheydidhadanyeffectonshocks–simplylaydownpassivelyandwhinedwhentheywereshocked.[4]Inasecondexperimentlaterthatyearwithnewgroupsofdogs,OvermierandSeligmanruledoutthepossibilitythat,insteadoflearnedhelplessness,theGroup3dogsfailedtoavertinthesecondpartofthetestbecausetheyhadlearnedsomebehaviorthatinterferedwith"escape".Topreventsuchinterferingbehavior,Group3dogswereimmobilizedwithaparalyzingdrug(curare),andunderwentaproceduresimilartothatinPart1oftheSeligmanandMaierexperiment.WhentestedasbeforeinPart2,theseGroup3dogsexhibitedhelplessnessasbefore.Thisresultservesasanindicatorfortherulingoutoftheinterferencehypothesis.Fromtheseexperiments,itwasthoug