外文文献翻译

外文文献翻译外文文献翻译/NUMV第二部分：外文文献原文MediaPolicyParadigmShiftsTowardsaNewCommunicationsPolicyParadigmTheemergenceofcommunicationsandmediapolicyTheoriginsofcommunicationspolicieslieintheinteractionbetweenthepursuitofnationalinterestsbystatesandtheoperationsofcommercial/industrialenterprises.Bothgovernmentandindustryhavesoughtmutualadvantagebywayofprivileges,regulationsandrestrictions.Policiesingeneralrefertoconscious(public)projectsforachievingsomegoal,togetherwiththeproposedmeansandtimescheduleforachievingthem.Thespecificcontentofgovernmentpoliciesreflectsthedealmadeintheparticulartimeandplaceandthebalanceofpowerandadvantagebetweengovernmentandindustry.Atthislevelofgenerality,notagreatdealhaschanged,despitethegeneraltransitionduringthe20thcenturytomoredemocraticformsofgovernmentandincreasingtrendstowardsglobalization.Evenso,inthefieldofmediapolicytherehavebeensignificantdevelopments,especiallyreflectingthechangingtechnologiesofcommunicationandtheincreasedimportanceofcommunicationin‘postindustrial’societies,whicharemoreoftenknownas‘informationsocieties’.Althoughforcenturiestherehavebeenstateinterventionsandregulationsrelatingtotransportandtravel,forpurposesofcontrol,financeorforstrategicreasons,itwouldbeanachronistictospeakofcommunicationspoliciesbeforetheseriesofelectronicinventionsbeginningwiththeelectrictelegraphinthemid-19thcentury.Inthisarticle,weidentifythreemainphasesofcommunicationspolicy-making.Wemaylabeltheseconsecutivephasesas(I)thephaseofemergingcommunicationsindustrypolicy,(II)thephaseofpublicservicemediapolicy,and(III)thephaseofanewcommunicationspolicyparadigm.ThegeneralshapeofcommunicationspolicyThemainelementsorfactorsofpolicyformediaandtelecommunicationspolicy,leavingasidethequestionofchangesovertimeanddifferencesbetweencontexts,consistof:thegoalsorobjectivestobepursued;thevaluesandcriteriabywhichgoalsaredefinedorrecognized;thevariouscontentandcommunicationservicestowhichpolicyapplies;thedifferentdistributionservices(mainlyprintpublishing,cable,satelliteandbroadcastdisseminationandtelecommunications);andfinallytheappro-priatepolicymeasuresandmeansofimplementation(mainlyembodiedinlaw,regulation,self-regulationormarketpractices).Thegoalofeconomicwelfarehasbeensubjecttochangingdefinitionsasfarascommunicationisconcerned.Minimumrequirementsareforinfrastructureprovisionsthatallowanationaleconomytofunctionefficientlyinproductionandmarketterms.Increasingly,underconditionsofaninformationsociety,thecommunicationsystemisanintegralpartoftheeconomyandformsanimportantandelaboratemarketinitsownright.Relevantvaluesasidefromgeneralonesofefficiency,employmentandprofitabilityincludethoseofinnovationandinterconnection.Thisgeneralmodelofthesocialcommunicationssystemviewedaccordingtotheperspectiveofpolicy-makersisanartificialcompositeofelementsthatwillnotapplytoallnationalcasesverywell.Itisalsoanachronistic,combiningnationalexperiencesoveralongperiodduringwhichsocietyandcommunicationtechnologyhavebeenchangingconsiderably.Inordertomakemoresenseoftheinformationandinterpretationsitsummarizes,weneedtosketchthesuccessivephasesofpolicy-makingwhichhaveeachlefttheirmarkoncommunicationsystemsandstillexertaninfluenceonthewaythechallengesoftodayarehandled.InthedescriptionthatfollowswemakeaninitialdistinctionbetweenanearlystageofemergingpolicyformediaandcommunicationsthatlastedapproximatelyuntilthewatershedoftheSecondWorldWar,whichopenedthewayforchangeinmuchoftheworldandalsocoincidedwiththeriseoftelevisionasamajormassmedium.Newcommunicationpolicy:Policymakersstillfacemanydifficultiesandunsolvedproblems.Foracountry,thesemainproblems:thescopeandobjectivesofthedefinitionofpublicdomainmedia;economicmeans,regulationandself-discipline,policychoice;forallareasofthemediaforconsistentprincipleandregulationframework,howtodefineanddevelopthenationalculturemediapolicy;howtobalancethecommunicationfreedomandsocialdemand.Policyconvergence?Undertheinfluenceofscienceandtechnology,throughthechoiceofthesameobjectives,principlesandmethodsappliedtoaunifiedregulatorylawsandregulations,whetherthemediapolicytendstoconvergence?Thisviewhasbeenwidelysupportedandcanbeimplemented(forexample,theBritishCommunicationsActof2002),buttheproblemcannotbeansweredwithasimple"yes"or"no"toanswerthe25question.Whiletherearereasonstodilutetheboundariesbetweendifferentmedia,itisnotnecessarytousethesameregulationsforalldifferentmediaservices.Europeisnowthetrendis:Despitetheencouragementoftheoverallpolicythinking,butalsotoencouragethedevelopmentofindependentstatelawsandregulationsofthecountrytocontrolthemediaoperationsofthepublicsphere.Currentlythereareenoughreasontoasktohaveacoherentpolicysystem(especiallytowardsfreedomanddiversity),butthisdoesnotmeanthatthewholeuniformhandlingofallmediacontent(advertising,art,news,sex,etc.).Becausethemediacontentandtheaudienceareobviouslydifferent.Soitispossibleandnecessarytousedifferentregulationsfordifferentpurposes.Publicfreedomofcommunicationisstillveryimportant,andshouldnotallowanysingleinstitutiontoputtoomuchpressureonacertainmodeoftransmission,butalsothetreatmentofdifferentmediashouldhaveaspecialcaseandspecialmeasures.Inaddition,oneimportantaspectisthat,inordertoprotecttheinterestsoftheaudience/citizens,weshouldalsokeepapoliticalandsocialculturalvalues.LookingforthenewpolicyparadigmAlthoughmuchremainsuncertain,thereisscopeformakingaprovisionaljudgementconcerningthecoreprinciplesoftheemergingparadigm.Thiscanbebasedoncertaincleartrendsintechnology,policyandeconomics,plusarecognitionofsocialandpoliticalinputsandconstraints.Althoughpublicservicebroadcastinganduniversaltele-communicationsserviceareunlikelytodisappearfromthepoliticalagenda,convergenceintechnology,liberalizationofcommunicationmarketsandinformationandcommunicationabundancedemandadifferentconceptualizationofcommunicationspolicy.Freedomofcommunicationshouldremainthemainobjectiveofanycommunicationspolicytobedesigned.Freedomcanbeexpressednegativelyaswellaspositively(Lichtenberg,1990).Intheformerrespectitreferstotheindependenceofcommunicationparticipantsfromgovernment(nocensorship),fromeconomicandotherforceshinderingexchangeofmessages(e.g.economicmonopoliesandotherdominantmarketpositions)aswellasfromsocialandpoliticalpressuregroups.Initspositiveaspect,freedomreferstoallthoseactivitiespeopleinsocietycanbeenabledtodowiththeirfreedom,e.g.tocontributetothecivicdebateonpoliticsortoexpressartisticcreativity.Thereshouldbeprovisionforbothaspectsaspolicygoals.Communicationregulationrelatestodifferentdimensionsofthecommunicationssystem,thatisthestructureofthecommunicationmarket,themarketconductofcommunicationparticipantsorthecontentofcommunication(seeMcQuail,1992:87—96).Negativefreedomofcommunicationrelatesmainlytomarketstructureandmarketconduct,whereaspositivefreedomprimarilyrelatestocontentandalsorequiresattentiontooursecondprinciple,thatofaccess.AsfarastheInternetisconcerned,theimplicationsforpolicyareclearenoughinrespectoftwoofthethreebasicprinciplesadvocated,namelyfreedomandaccess.TheInternetbeganinfreedom,althoughitmightnothavedonesowithoutgovernmentsponsorshiporiginally.AccesstotheInternethasbeenwidelyadoptedasasuitablegoalofpolicy,forvariousreasons.ThestoryofemergingpolicyfortheIn