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SupplementaryReadingChapter TheWTODisputeSettlementasaModelInternationalTheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)andDisputeSettlementProceduresLastUpdated:TheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)wasestablishedin1995inthefinalround(UruguayRound)oftheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT)negotiations.TheWTOisnotasimpleextensionofGATT,butacompleterecementofitwithadifferentcharacter.TheWTOembodiesthenegotiatedresultsoftheUruguayRoundandisthesuccessortoGATT.TheWTOisresponsibleforenforcingtheGATTagreements,whicharedesignedtoreducebarrierstoworldtrade.DuringthetradenegotiationsglobalrulesforinternationaltradewereimprovedandextendedtomosttradingnationsonanequivalentbasisandresponsibilityforenforcingtheseruleswasentrustedtothenewlycreatedWTO.Additionally,theWTOprovidesproceduresfornegotiatingadditionalreductionsoftradebarriersandforthepromptandeffectivesettlementofdisputesinallareascoveredbythenewworldtradeagreement.TheUruguayRoundestablisheddisputesettlementproceduresfortheWTO.ThiswascalledtheUnderstandingonRulesandProcedureserningtheSettlementofDisputes(DSU).THESTRUCTUREOFTHETheStructureoftheWTOisdominatedbyitshighestauthority,theMinisterialConference,composedofrepresentativesofallWTOmembers,whichisrequiredtomeetatleasteverytwoyearsandwhichcantakedecisiononallmattersunderanyofthemultilaltradeagreements.Theday-to-dayworkoftheWTOiscarriedoutbyanumberofsubsidiarybodies;primarilytheGeneralCouncil,whichisalsocomposedofallWTOmembers,whichisrequiredtoreporttotheMinisterialConference.AswellasconductingitsregularworkonbehalfoftheMinisterialConference,theGeneralCouncilconvenesintwoparticularforms-astheDisputeSettlementBody(DSB),tooverseethedisputesettlementprocedures,andastheTradeReviewBodytoconductregularreviewsofthetradepoliciesofindividualWTOmembers.TheGeneralCouncildelegatesresponsibilitytothreeothermajorbodies:theCouncilforTradeinGoods,theCouncilforTradeinServices,andtheCouncilforTradeRelatedAspectsofInlectualProperty.TheCouncilforTradeinGoodsoverseastheimplementationandfunctioningofalltheagreementscoveringtradeingoods,thoughmanysuchagreementshavetheirownspecificoverseeingbodies.TheothertwoCouncilsareresponsiblefortheirrespectiveWTOagreementsandmayestablishtheirownsubsidiarybodiesasnecessary.TheWTOGeneralCouncilconvenesastheDSBtodealwithdisputesarisingfromanyagreementcontainedintheFinalActoftheUruguayRound.TheDSBissolelyauthorizedtoestablishpanels,adoptpanelandappellatereports,maintainsurveillanceofimplementationorrulingsandmendations,andauthorizeretaliatorymeasureincasesofnonimplementationofTheWTOdisputesettlementmechanismgivesthepossibilityofappealtoeitherpartyinapanelproceeding.AppealsareheardbyastandingAppellateBodyestablishedbytheDSB.ThisAppellateBodyiscomposedofseven swhichbroadlyrepresenttheWTO'smembership.Theyservefouryearterms.arerequiredtobe sofrecognizedstandinginthefieldoflawandinternationaltrade,andcannotbeaffiliatedwithanyernment.TheWTOSecretariat,whichislocatedinGeneva,Switzerland,hasastaffofabout500andisheadedbyaDirectorGeneralandfourDeputyDirectorsGeneral.ItsresponsibilitiesincludetheservicingofWTOdelegatebodieswithrespecttonegotiationsandtheimplementationsofagreements.Ithasaparticularresponsibilitytoprovidetechnicalsupporttodevelocountries,andespeciallytheleastdevelopedcountries.WTOeconomistsandstatisticiansprovidetradeperformanceandysiswhileitslegalstaffassistintheresolutionoftradedisputesinvolvingtheinterpretationofWTOrulesandprecedents.MuchoftheSecretariat'sworkisconcernedwithaccessionnegotiationsfornewmembersandprovidingadvicetoernmentsconsideringmembership.THEDIFFERENCEBETWEENWTOANDTheprincipledifferencesbetweenWTOandGATTGATTwasasetofrules,amultilalagreement,withnoinstitutionalfoundation,onlyasmallassociatedsecretariatwhichhaditsoriginsinthefailedattempttoestablishtheInternationalTradeOrganizationsinthe1940s.TheWTOisapermanentinstitutionwithitsownsecretariat.GATTwasapplieda"provisionalbasis"eventhoughitlastedmorethanfortyyearsandernmentschosetotreatitasapermanentcommitment.TheWTOcommitmentsarefullandGATTrulesappliedtotradeinmerchandisegoods.Inadditiontogoods,theWTOcoverstradeinservicesandtraderelatedaspectsofinternationalproperty.GATTwasamultilalinstrument,bythe1980smanynewagreementshadbeenaddedofaplurilal,thereforeselective,nature.TheagreementswhichconstitutetheWTOarealmostallmultilalandinvolvecommitmentsfortheentiremembership.TheWTOdisputesettlementsystemisfaster,moreautomatic,andlesssusceptibletoblockages,thantheoldGATTsystem.TheimplementationofWTOdisputefindingswillbemoreeasilyassured.DISPUTESETTLEMENTTheWTO'sdisputesettlementprocessunderscorestheruleoflaw,anditmakesthetradingsystemmoresecureandpredictable.Theproceduresareclearlystructured,withflexibletimetablessetforcompletingacase.Firstrulingsaremadebyapanelandfinalrulingsareendorsed(rejected)bytheWTO'sfullmembership.Appealsthatarebasedonpointsoflawarepossible.Nosinglecountrycanblockthese.TheUnderstandingonRulesandProcedureserningtheSettlementofDisputes(DSU),bothcontinuesandmodifiespriorGATTdisputepractices.ThedisputesettlementsystemoftheWTOisacentralelementinprovidingsecurityandpredictabilitytothemultilaltradingsystemandWTOmemberscommitthemselvesnottotakeunilalactionagainstperceivedviolationsofthetraderulesbuttoseekrecourseinthemultilaldisputesettlementsystemandtoabidebyitsrulesandfindings.SettlingdisputesistheresponsibilityoftheDisputeSettlementBody(DSB)(theDSBistheWTOGeneralCouncilactinginadisputesettlementrole).TheDSBhasthesoleauthoritytoestablish"panels"ofexpertstoconsideracase,andtoacceptorrejectthepanels'findingsortheresultsofanappeal.TheDSBmonitorstheimplementationoftherulingsand mendations,andhasthepowertoauthorizeretaliationwhenacountrydoesnotcomplywitharuling.FIRSTSTAGE-CONSULTATION(UPTO60Beforetakinganyotheractionsthecountriesindisputehavetotalktoeachothertoseeiftheycansettletheirdifferencesbythemselves.Ifthatfails,thetwocountriescsoasktheWTODirectorGeneraltomediateortrytohelpinotherway.SECONDSTAGE-THEPANEL(UPTO45DAYSFORAPANELTOBEAPPOINTED,PLUS6MONTHSFORTHEPANELTOCONCLUDE):Ifconsultationsbetweenthecountriesfail,thecominingcountrycanaskforapaneltobeappointed.Thecountrythathasbeenaccusedofwrongngcanblockthecreationofapanelonce,butwhentheDSBmeetsforasecondtime,theappointmentcannolongerbeblocked(unlessthereisaconsensusagainstappointingthepanel).Panelsaremuchliketribunals.Unliketribunals,however,thepanelistsareusuallychoseninconsultationwiththecountriesindispute.Whenthetwosidesareunabletoagreeonthecompositionofpanelists,theWTODirectorGeneralthenhastheauthoritytoappointthem.Thishappensrarely.Panelsconsistofthree(sometimesfive)expertsfromdifferentcountrieswhoexaminetheevidenceanddecidewhoisrightandwhoiswrong.Thepanel'sreportispassedtotheDSB,whichcanonlyrejectthereportbyconsensus.Panelistsforeachcasecanbechosenfromapermanentlistofwellqualifiedcandidates,orfromelsewhere.Theyserveintheirindividualcapacities.Theycannotreceiveinstructionsfrom mendations.However,sincethepanel'sreportcanonlyberejectedbyconsensusinDSB,itsconclusionsaredifficulttooverturn.Thepanel'sfindingshavetobebasedontheagreementscited.Thepanel'sfinalreportshouldnormallybegiventothepartiestothedisputewithinsixmonths.Incasesofurgency,includingthoseconcerningperishablegoods,thedeadlineisshortenedtothreemonths.ThefollowingbreaksdownthemainstagesofthepanelsBeforethefirsthearing:eachsideinthedisputepresentsitscaseinwritingtotheFirsthearing:thecaseforthecominingcountryanddefense:thecominingcountry(orcountries),therespondingcountry,andthosethathaveannouncedtheyhaveaninterestinthedispute,maketheircaseatthepanel'sfirsthearing.Rebuttals:thecountriesinvolvedsubmitwrittenrebuttalsandpresentoralargumentsatthepanel'ssecondmeeting.Experts:ifonesideraisesscientificorothertechnicalmatters,thepanelmayconsultexpertsorappointanexpertreviewgrouptoprepareanadvisoryreport.Firstdraft:thepanelsubmitsthedescriptive(factualandargument)sectionsofitsreporttothetwosides,givingthemtwoweekstocomment.Thisreportdoesnotincludefindingsandconclusions.Interimreport:Thepanelthensubmitsaninterimreport,includingitsfindingsandconclusions,tothetwosides,givingthemoneweektoaskforareview.Review:Theperiodofreviewmustnotexceedtwoweeks.Duringthattime,thepanelmayholdadditionalmeetingswiththetwosides.FinalReportAfinalreportissubmittedtothetwosidesandthreeweekslater,itiscirculatedtoallWTOmembers.IfthepaneldecidesthatthedisputedtrademeasuredoesbreakaWTOagreementoranobligation,it mendsthatthemeasurebemadetoconformwithWTOrules.Thepanelmaysuggesthowthiscouldbedone.Thereport esaruling:Thereport estheDisputeSettlementBody'sruling mendationwithin60daysunlessaconsensusrejectsit.Bothsidescanappealthereport(sometimesbothpartiesdo).Eithersidehastheopportunitytoappealtherulingbythepanel.Insomecases,bothpartieshaveappealedthepanel'sruling.Appealsarebasedonlegalpointssuchaslegalinterpretation-theycannotbebasedonthereexaminationorexistingevidenceortheexaminationofnewevidence.Eachappealisheardbythreemembersofapermanentseven-memberAppellateBodysetupbytheDSBandbroadlyrepresentingtherangeofWTOmembership.MembersoftheAppellateBodyhavefour-yearterms.Theymustbeindividualswhopossessarecognizedstandinginthefieldoflawandinternationaltrade,andnotaffiliatedwithanyernment.Anappealcanuphold,modifyorreversethepanel'slegalfindingsandconclusions.Normallyappealsshouldnotlastmorethan60days,withthe umbeing90days.TheDSBmustacceptorrejectappealsreportwithin30days.Rejectionoftheappealsreportcanonlybedonebyconsensus.CONCLUDINGAfterthecasehasbeendecided,thelosingpartyor"defendant"needstobringitsintoconformitywiththeDSB'srulingor mendations.Thedisputesettlementagreementstatesthat"promptcompliancewith mendationsorrulingsoftheDSBisessentialinordertoensureeffectiveresolutionofdisputestothebenefitofallMembers".Ifthecountrythatisthetargetofthecomintloses,itmustthenfollowthe mendationsofthepanelreportortheappealsreport.ThecountrymuststateitsintentiontocomplyataDSBmeetingheldwithin30daysofthereportsadoption.Ifitisimpracticaltocomplyimmediay,thememberwillbegivena"reasonableperiodoftime"todoso.Ifitfailstoactwithinthisperiod,ithastoenterintonegotiationswiththecominingcountry(orcountries)inordertodeterminemutually-acceptablecompensation.Ifafter20days,nosatisfactorycompensationhasbeenagreedto,thecominingsidehastheoptionofaskingtheDSBforpermissiontoimposelimitedtradesanctions("suspendconcessionsorobligations")againsttheotherside.TheDSBshouldgrantthisauthorizationwithin30daysoftheexpiryofthe"reasonableperiodoftime"unlessthereisaconsensusagainsttherequest.Inprinciple,thesanctionsshouldbeimposedinthesamesectorasthedispute.Ifforsomereasonthisisnotpracticalorifitcannotbeeffective,thesanctionscanbedirectedtoadifferentsectorofthesameagreement.Ifthisisalsonoteffectiveorpracticableandifthecircumstancesareseriousenough,theactioncanbetakenunderanotheragreement.ThegoalistominimizethechancesofactionsspillinerintounrelatedsectorswhileatthesametimeallowingtheactionstobeeffectiveInconclusion,theDSBmonitorshowadoptedrulingsareimplemented.Anyoutstandingcaseremainsonitsagendauntiltheissueisresolved.QuestionsforWhatisCanyoudescribethestructureoftheWhatisthefunctionoftheCouncilforTradeinArethereanydifferencesbetweenWTOandGATT?WhatareWhataretheWTO’sdisputsettlementprocedures?PleasespecifythedifferentHowarepanelistsWhohearsCananappealuphold,modifyorreversethepanel’slegalfindingsand第七章补充阅读WTO争端解决作为国际的模式世界贸易组织和争议解决程序最后更新：2004年4月24世界贸易组织（WTO）于1995年GATT）最后一轮（乌拉圭回合）谈判中成立。 的继承者。世贸组织负责执行旨在减少世界贸易壁垒的协议。在贸易谈判效解决贸易协定涵盖的所有政策领域的争端的程序。乌拉圭回合为世贸组织建立了争端解决世贸组织的结构世贸组织的结构由其最高权力机构——部长级会议主导，由所有世贸组织成员的。世贸组织的日常工作由多个附属机构执行；主要是事会，也由世贸组织所有成员组成，向部长级会议报告。除了代表部长级会议开展日常工作外，事会还以两种特殊形式召开会议——作为争端解决机构（DSB），负责监督争端解决程序；以及作为贸易政策机构，进行定期世事会将职责委托给其他三个主要机构：货物贸易理事会、服务贸易理事会和知识贸易相关世贸组织事会作为争端解决机构召开会议，处理乌拉圭回合《最后文件》所载任何协议引起的争端。DSB仅有权设立专家组、通过专家组和上诉报告、维持对实施或裁决和建议的监督，以及世贸组织争端解决机制允许在专家组程序中向任何一方提出上诉。上诉由DSB设立的常设上诉机构。该上诉机构由七名成员组成，广泛代表世贸组织成员。他们的为四年。必须是在法律和国际贸易领域具有公认地位的，并且不能隶属于任何。职责包括为世贸组织代表机构提供谈判和协议执行方面的服务。它负有向发展家、特别是最不发达国家提供技术支持的特殊责任。世贸组织和统计学家提供贸易绩效和政策分析，而其WTO和GATT之间的区别WTO和GATTGATT是一套规则，是一项多边协议，没有制度基础，只有一个小型附属处，其 于20世纪40年代建立国际贸易组织尝试。世贸组织是一个常设机构，有自己的 尽管持续了四十多年，但它仍然是“临时基础”，各国选择将其视为永久承诺。世贸组织的承诺是全面和永久的。规则适用于商品贸易。除货物贸易外，世贸组织还涵2080与旧的体系相比，世贸组织争端解决体系更快、更自动化、更不易受阻。世