英语国家概况复习笔记

英语国家概况复习笔记Chapter1LandandPeople英国的国土与人民DifferentNamesforBritainanditsParts英国的不同名称及其各组成部分1.Geographicalnames:theBritishIsles,GreatBritainandEngland.地理名称:不列颠群岛,大不列颠和英格兰.2.Officialname:theUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland.官方正式名称:大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国.3.TheBritishIslesaremadeupoftwolargeislands—GreatBritain(thelargerone)andIreland,andhundredsofsmallones.不列颠群岛由两个大岛［大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛］及成千上万个小岛组成.4.ThreepoliticaldivisionsontheislandofGreatBritain:England,ScotlandandWales.大不列颠岛上有三个政区:英格兰,苏格兰和威尔士.①EnglandisinthesouthernpartofGreatBritain.Itisthelargest,mostpopuloussection.位于大不列颠岛南部,是最大,人口最稠密的地区.②ScotlandisinthenorthofGreatBritain.Ithasthreenaturalzones(theHighlandsinthenorth;theCentrallowlands;thesouthUplands)Capital:Edinburgh.苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部.它有三大自然区：北部高地,中部低地及南部山陵.首府：爱丁堡.③WalesisinthewestofGreatBritain.Capital:Cardiff威尔士位于大不列颠的西部.首府：加的夫④NorthernIrelandisthefourthregionoftheUK.Capital:Belfast.北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域.首府：贝尔法斯特5.TheCommonwealth(ofnations)isafreeassociationofindependentcountriesthatwereoncecoloniesofBritain.Membernationsarejoinedtogethereconomicallyandhavecertaintradingagreements.TheCommonwealthhasnospecialpowers.ThedecisiontobecomeamemberoftheCommonwealthislefttoeachnation.Itwasfoundedin1931,andhas50membercountriesuntil1991.英联邦是一个自由联合体,由曾是英国殖民地而现在已经独立的国家构成.成员国之间实行经济合作,有一定的贸易协议.英联邦没有特别的权利,是否参加英联邦由各成员国自己决定.它成立于1931年,到1991年止已有50个成员国.Chapter2TheOriginsofaNation(5000BC-1066)英国的起源1.ArrivalandsettlementoftheCeltsAtabout700BCtheCeltsbegantoarriveinBritainandkeptcominguntilthearrivaloftheRomans.TheymaycomeoriginallyfromeasternandcentralEurope,nowFrance,BelgiumandsouthernGermany.约公元前700年,凯尔特人来到不列颠岛并一直陆续到来直到罗马人的入侵.他们可能源自东欧和中欧,即现在的法国,比利时和德国南部.Theycameinthreemainwaves:theGaels~about600BC;theBrythons~about400BC;theBelgae~about150BC.凯尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮:第一次是约公元前600年的盖尔人;第二次是约公元前400年的布立吞人;第三次是约公元前150年的贝尔盖人.TheCeltictribesaretheancestorsoftheHighlandScots,theIrishandtheWelsh,andtheirlanguagesarethebasisofbothWelshandGaelic.凯尔特人是山地苏格兰人,爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先,他们的语言是威尔士语和盖尔语的基础.TheCelts’religionwasDruidism.凯尔特人的宗教为德鲁伊德教.TheBelgaewerethemostindustriousandvigorousoftheCeltictribes.贝尔盖人是最勤奋,最精力充沛的.TheCeltswerepractisedfarmers.凯尔特人是有经验的农民.2.BasisofmodernEnglishrace:theAnglo-Saxons现代英国人的基础:盎格鲁—萨克逊(446-871)Inthemid-5thcenturyJutes,Saxons,andAnglescametoBritain.TheywerethreeTeutonictribes.TheJutes,whofishedandfarmedinJutland(nowsouthernDenmark),cametoBritainfirst.ThentheSaxonscame.TheycamefromnorthernGermany,establishedtheirkingdomsinEssex,SussexandWessex.Inthesecondhalfofthe6thcentury,theAngleswhoalsocamefromnorthernGermanyandweretogivetheirnametotheEnglishpeople,settledinEastAnglia,MerciaandNorthumbria.五世纪中叶,朱特人,撒克逊人和盎格鲁人来到不列颠岛.这是三支日耳曼部落.居住在朱特兰岛(现丹麦南部)从事打渔农耕的朱特人先到达不列颠;接着是撒克逊人,他们来自德国北部,在埃塞克斯,苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国;六世纪后半叶,同样来自德国北部把自己名字给了英国人的盎格鲁人,在东盎格利亚,麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居.Heptarchy:DuringtheAnglo-Saxon’stime,Britainwasdividedintomanykingdoms,amongwhichthereweresevenprincipalkingdomsofKent,Essex,Sussex,Wessex,EastAnglia,MerciaandNorthumbria.TheyweregiventhenameforHeptarchy.在盎格鲁-撒克逊时期,英国被划分为许多王国,其中有七个主要王国:肯特,埃塞克斯,苏塞克斯,威塞克斯,东盎格利亚,麦西亚和诺森伯利来.他们被合称为七王国.TheAnglo-Saxontribeswereconstantlyatwarwithoneanother,eachtryingtogettheupperhand,sothatthekingdomswereoftenbrokenupandoftenpiecedtogetheragain.盎格鲁-撒克逊部落之间不断交战,彼此都想占上风,因此王国总是分了合,合了又分TheAnglo-SaxonsbroughttheirownTeutonicreligiontoBritain.盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国.AlthoughtheAnglo-Saxonswereferociouspeople,theylaidthefoundationsoftheEnglishstate.Firstly,theydividedthecountryintoshires;Secondly,theydevisedthenarrow-strip,three-fieldfarmingsystemwhichcontinuedtothe18thcentury;Thirdly,theyalsoestablishedthemanorialsystem.Finally,theycreatedtheWitan(council/meetingofwisemen)toadvisetheking,thebasisofthePrivyCouncilwhichstillexiststoday.虽然盎格鲁-撒克逊人是凶猛的民族,但他们为英国国家的形成打下了基础.首先他们把国家划分为郡;其次他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪;他们还建立了采邑制;最后他们还创立了议会(贤人会议),向国王提供建议,这是现存的枢密院的基础.3.TheVikingandDanishinvasionsTheNorwegianVikingsandtheDanesattackedvariouspartsofEnglandfromtheendofthe8thcentury.TheDanesgainedcontrolofthenorthandeastofEngland—theDanelaw.从8世纪末起,挪威海盗和丹麦人就不断袭击英格兰各地方.丹麦人控制英格兰北部和东部丹麦法区.AfterAlfred’sdeath,hissuccessorsreconqueredtheDanelaw.KingEthelredtheUnreadytriedpayingtheinvaderstostayaway.ButtheDanesdidn’tgoawaybutinvadeagain.亚尔弗雷德死后,他的继任者们重新征服了丹麦地区."未准备好者"埃塞尔雷德国王进贡给丹麦人以免被侵略,但丹麦人又再度进犯.AfterEthelred’sdeath,Canute,theDanishleaderwasmadeEnglishkingin1016.Heprovedtobeawiseruler.Afterhisdeathin1035,hissonsHaroldandHardicanutereignedsuccessively.AfterHardicanute’sdeaththesuccessionpassedtothesuccessorEdwardtheConfessor.埃塞尔雷德死后,丹麦首领喀奴特在1016年成为了英国国王.他是位英明的通知者.1035年他死后,他的儿子哈罗德和哈迪喀奴特先后统治王国.哈迪喀奴特死后,王位传给了"忏悔者"爱德华.4.KingAlfredandhiscontributions亚尔弗雷德国王和他所做出的贡献(849-899)①AlfredwasthekingofWessexanddefeatedtheDanesandreachedafriendlyagreementwiththemin879亚尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王.他打败了丹麦人,并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议;②Hefoundedastrongfleetandisknownas“thefatheroftheBritishnavy”他因为建立了强大舰队,而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世;③HereorganizedtheSaxonarmy,makingitmoreefficient他改组了撒克逊军队,使之更为高效;④HeissaidtohavetaughthimselfLatinandtranslatedaLatinbookintoEnglish据说他自学了拉丁语并将一本拉丁语书译成英语⑤Heencouragedlearninginothers,establishedschoolsandformulatedalegalsystem.Allthisearnshimthetitle“AlfredtheGreat”他鼓励向他人求知并修建学校,并且制订法律制度.5.TheNormanConquestanditsconsequences诺曼征服及其影响(1066)ItwassaidthatkingEdwardhadpromisedtheEnglishthronetoWilliam,buttheWitanchoseHaroldasking.SoWilliamledhisarmytoinvadeEngland.InOctober1066,WilliamdefeatedHaroldinthebattleofHastings.OnChristmasDayWilliamwascrownedkingofEnglandinWestminsterAbbey.据说爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉,但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德为国王.公元1066年10月,在哈斯丁斯战役中威廉打败了哈罗德军队.圣诞节这天在威斯敏斯特大教堂,威廉被加冕为英格兰国王.TheNormanConquestof1066isperhapsthebest-knowneventinEnglishhistory.WilliamtheConquerorconfiscatedalmostallthelandandgaveittohisNormanfollowers.HereplacedtheweakSaxonrulewithastrongNormangovernment.TheNormanConquestendedtheEnglishhistoryofbeinginvaded,thefeudalsystemwascompletelyestablishedinEngland.RelationswiththeContinentwereopened,andcivilizationandcommercewereextended.Norman-Frenchculture,language,mannersandarchitecturewereintroduced.TheChurchwasbroughtintocloserconnectionwithRome,andthechurchcourtswereseparatedfromthecivilcourts.公元1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件.征服者威廉没收了几乎所有土地,将其分发给他的诺曼追随者.他用强大的诺曼政府取代软弱的撒克逊人统治.诺曼征服结束了被侵略的英国历史,英格兰完全确立了封建制度:扩展了与欧洲大陆的关系;文明和商业都得到发展;引进了诺曼—法国文化、语言、举止和建筑.教会与罗马的联系更为密切,教会法庭从世俗法庭中单独分离出来.Chapter3TheShapingoftheNation英国的形成（公元1066-1381）1.England'sfeudalismundertheruleofWilliamtheConqueror在威廉统治下的英国封建制度①UnderWilliam,thefeudalsysteminEnglandwascompletelyestablished在威廉统治下,英国的封建制度得到完全确立;②Inthissystem,theKingownedallthelandpersonally根据此制度,国王拥有全国所有土地;③WilliamgavehisbaronslargeestatesinEnglandinreturnforapromiseofmilitaryserviceandaproportionoftheland’sproduce威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族,条件是贵族保证服役和交租;④Theseestateswerescatteredfarandwideoverthecountry,sothatthosewhoheldthemcouldnoteasilycombinetorebeltheking贵族的这些地产分散于各处,这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王;⑤Thebaronsparceledouthislandtothelessernobles,knightsandfreemen,alsoinreturnforgoodsandservices贵族又把土地分配给小贵族,骑士和自由民,同样要他们交租和服役;⑥Atthebottomofthefeudalscalewerethevilleinsorserfs在封建等级底层的是农奴;⑦OnepeculiarfeatureofthefeudalsystemofEnglandwasthatalllandownersmusttaketheoathofallegiance,notonlytotheirimmediatelord,butalsototheking英国封建制独有的特色就是,无论是土地承租人还是二佃户,都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主,而且要效忠于国王.WilliamreplacedtheWitanwiththeGrandCouncil.威廉用大议会取代了贤人会议.Inordertohaveareliablerecordofallhislands,histenantsandtheirpossessions,WilliamsenthisclerkstocompileapropertyrecordknownasDomesdayBook,whichwascompletedin1086.为了使所有的土地,佃户和他们的财产记录可靠,威廉派官员编了一本财产清册,称为«末日审判书»2.ContentsandthesignificanceoftheGreatCharter«大宪章»的内容及意义AlsoknownastheMagnaCarta,GreatCharterwassignedbyKingJohnin1215underthepressofthebarons.«大宪章»是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的.Itconsistsof63clauses.Itsimportantprovisionsareasfollows«大宪章»共有63条:①notaxshouldbemadewithouttheapprovaloftheGrandCouncil没有大议会批准不得征税;②nofreemanshouldbearrested,imprisoned,ordeprivedofhispropertyexceptbythelawoftheland除依照法律,不得随意逮捕,拘禁自由民,不依照土地法不得剥夺其财产;③theChurchshouldpossessallitsrights,togetherwithfreedomofelections教会拥有的权利和选举自由不受侵犯;④Londonandothertownsshouldretaintheirancientrightsandprivileges伦敦和其它城市应保留其古老的权利和特权;⑤thereshouldbethesameweightandmeasuresthroughoutthecountry全国应统一度量衡.AlthoughtheGreatCharterhaslongbeenpopularlyregardedasthefoundationofEnglishliberties,itwasastatementofthefeudalandlegalrelationshipbetweentheCrownandthebarons,aguaranteeofthefreedomoftheChurchandalimitationofthepowersoftheking.ThespiritoftheGreatCharterwasthelimitationofthepowersoftheking,keepingthemwithintheboundsofthefeudallawoftheland.尽管长期普遍认为«大宪章»是英国自由的基础,但它只是国王与贵族之间的封建与法律关系,保证教会的自由,限制国王的权力.«大宪章»的精神是限制王权,置王权于封建法律的约束下.3.TheoriginsoftheEnglishParliament英国议会的起源In1258,thebarons,underSimondeMontfort,forcedHenryⅢandhissonPrinceEdwardtosweartoaccepttheProvisionsofOxford.Later,HenryrefusedtoconfirmtotheProvisionsofOxford,thusacivilwarbrakeoutbetweentheking’ssupportersandthebaronialarmyledbySimondeMontfort.1258年,贵族们在西蒙•德•孟福尔的领导下迫使国王和他的儿子爱德华王子宣誓接受"牛津协定".亨利拒绝批准牛津协定,国王的支持者和西蒙•德•孟福尔领导的封建主组成的军队之间爆发了内战.TheGreatCouncilisknowntobetheprototypeofthecurrentBritishParliament.In1265,SimondeMontfortsummonedtheGreatCouncil,togetherwithtwoknightsfromeachcountryandtwocitizensfromeachtown.,ameetingwhichhasseenastheearliestparliament.ItlaterdevelopedintotheHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommonasaparliament.大议会是当今英国议会的原型.1265年,西门德孟福尔召开大议会,各县有两名骑士,各镇有两名市民参加,此次会议被看作是最早的议会.大议会发展到后来演变成议会.分为上议院和下议院Itsmainrolewastoofferadvice,nottomakedecisions.Therewerestillnoelections,noparties,andthemostimportantpartofParliamentwastheHouseofLords.其作用是咨询而非决定,也没有选举和政党.议会的最重要的部分是上议院4.TheHundredYears'WarwithFranceanditsconsequences百年战争及其结果WhenEdwardIIIclaimedtheFrenchCrownbuttheFrenchrefusedtorecognize,thewarbrokeout.爱德华三世宣布要继承法国王位,但法国人民拒绝承认,于是引发了百年战争.TheHundredYears’WarwithFrancereferstothewarbetweenEnglandandFrancethatlastedintermittentlyfrom1337to1453.Thecausesofthewarwerepartlyterritorialandpartlyeconomic.TheterritorialcauseswererelatedwiththepossessionbytheEnglishkingsofthelargeduchyofAquitaine,whiletheFrenchkingscovetedthislargeslice.TheeconomiccauseswereconnectedwithclothmanufacturingtownsinFlanders,whichweretheimporterofEnglishwool,buttheywereloyaltotheFrenchkingpolitically.Besides,England'sdesiretostopFrancefromgivingaidtoScotsandagrowingsenseofnationalismweretheothercauses.百年战争指1337年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争.战争的起因既有领土因素又有经济因素.领土起因尤其是与英国国王拥有法国阿奎丹大片的公爵领地有密切关系,随着法国国王势力日增,他们日益渴望占领这片从他们领土内被分割出去的土地.经济原因则与弗兰德斯有关.弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口地,但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法国国王.其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人,以及不断觉醒的民族意识.Whenthewarended,CalaiswastheonlypartofFrancethatstillinthehandsofEnglish.战争结束的时候只有加来港还被英军占领.Consequences:TheexpulsionoftheEnglishfromFranceisregardedasablessingforbothcountries:hadtheyremained,thesuperiorsizeandwealthofFrancewouldcertainlyhavehinderedthedevelopmentofaseparateEnglishnationalidentity,whileFrancewashinderedsolongasaforeignpoweroccupiedsomuchFrenchterritory.战争的结果:把英国人赶出了法国对两个国家都是幸事:若英国人继续留在法国,那么法国人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍英国作为一个独立民族的发展;而法国如被外国势力占领了大量的领土,其民族特性的发展也要长期受阻.andTerritories,Queen,HeadoftheCommonwealth,DefenderoftheFaith".伊莉莎白二世,她的全称是"上帝神佑,大布列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国以及她的其他领土和领地的女王,英联邦元首,国教保护者伊莉莎白二世".TheQueenisthesymbolofthewholenation.Inlaw,Sheisheadoftheexecutive,anintegralpartofthelegislature,headofthejudiciary,thecommander-in-chiefofallthearmedforcesoftheCrownandthe“supremegovernor”oftheestablishedChurchofEngland.女王是国家的象征.从法律上讲,她是行政首脑,立法机构的组成部分,司法首脑,全国武装部队总司令,英国国教"至高无上的领袖".TheCivilListisanannualgrantapprovedbyParliament.ThegrantismadetotheBritishSovereignandmembersoftheroyalfamily.Itisusedtocovertheexpenseinvolvedincarryingouttheirpublicduties.InBritain,theQueen’sprivateexpenditureasSovereignismetfromthePrivyPurse,whichisfinancedmainlyfromtherevenueoftheDuchyofLancaster.在英国,女王的君主开销由王室内库支付,王室内库主要来自兰开斯特郡的王室领地收入.3.TheBritishParliamentanditsfunctions英国的议院和它的作用TheUnitedKingdomisaunitary,notafederal,state.ParliamentconsistsoftheSovereign,theHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommons.AParliamenthasamaximumdurationoffiveyears.英国是中央集权国家,而不是联邦制国家.议会由君主,上议院和下议院组成.一届议会的最长任期是5年.ThemainfunctionsofParliamentare:议会的主要作用是:①topasslaws通过立法;②toprovide,byvotingfortaxation,themeansofcarryingontheworkofgovernment投票批准征税,为政府工作提供资金;③toexaminegovernmentPolicyandadministrations,includingproposalforexpenditure检查政府政策和行政管理,包括拨款提议;④todebatethemajorissuesoftheday当天的议题辩论.TheHouseofParliamentwererebuiltbetween1835and1857afterhavingbeendestroyedbyfireandweredesignedbySirCharlesBarry.ThepublicareadmittedtotheStrangers’GalleriesintheHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommons.议会大厦被大火烧毁后,于1835年重建,是查尔斯•巴里设计的.公众可以到上下议院的公众旁听席旁听会议辩论.TheHouseofLordsismadeupoftheLordsSpiritualandtheLordsTemporal.TheLordsSpiritualaretheArchbishopsofCanterburyandYorkand24seniorbishopsoftheChurchofEngland.ThemainfunctionoftheHouseofLordsistobringthewideexperienceofitsmembersintotheprocessoflawmaking.Inotherwords,thenon-electedHouseistoactasachamberofrevision,complementingbutnotrivalingtheelectHouse.上议院由神职贵族议员和世俗贵族议员组成.神职贵族议员是指坎特伯雷大主教和约克大主教以及英国教会的24位高级主教.它的主要作用是用议员的丰富经验帮助立法.换而言之,非选举的上议院是修正议院,对由选举产生的下议院立案进行补充而并非反对.TheGentlemanUsheroftheBlackRod,usuallyknownas“BlackRod”,isresponsibleforsecurity,accommodationandservicesintheHouseofLords’partofthePalaceofWestminster.“黑杖侍卫”负责威斯敏斯特宫中上议院的安全,膳宿和服务.TheHouseofCommoniselectedbyuniversaladultsuffrageandconsistsof651MembersofParliament(MPs).ItisintheHouseofCommonsthattheultimateauthorityforlaw-makingresides.下议院由成人普选产生,由651名议员组成.下议院拥有最终立法权.Britainisdivided651constituencies.EachoftheconstituenciesreturnsonemembertotheHouseofCommons.AgeneralElectionmustbeheldeveryfiveyearsandisoftenheldatmorefrequentintervals.英国被划分为651个选区,每个选区选一名下议院议员.大选必须五年举行一次,但经常不到五年就进行一次选举.BritishcitizensandcitizensofotherCommonwealthcountries,togetherwithcitizensoftheIrish-Republic,maystandforelectionasMpsprovidedtheyareaged21oroverandarenotdisqualified.Acandidatemustdeposit₤500,whichisreturnedifheorshereceives5%ormoreofthevotecast.英国公民和其他英联邦国家公民以及爱尔兰共和国公民,都可以竞选议员,条件是年满21岁以上和没有被取消资格.候选人必须交纳500英镑保证金,若得到投票总数的5%以上的选票则可以退还.Britainhasanumberofparties,butthereareonlytwomajorparties.ThesetwopartiesaretheConservativePartyandtheLabourParty.Since1945,eithertheConservativePartyortheLabourPartyhasheldpower.ThepartywhichwinssufficientseatsataGeneralElectiontocommandamajorityofsupportersintheHouseofCommonsusuallyformstheGovernment.TheleaderofthemajoritypartyisappointedPrimeMinisterbytheSovereign.ThepartywhichwinsthesecondlargestnumberofseatsbecomestheofficialOpposition,withitsownleaderand“shadowcabinet”.TheaimsoftheOppositionaretocontributetotheformulationofpolicyandlegislationbyconstructivecriticism,toopposegovernmentproposalsitconsidersobjectionable,toseekamendmentstogovernmentBills,andtoputforwarditsownpoliciesinordertoimproveitschancesofwinningthenextgeneralelection.英国有很多政党，但有两个主要的政党—-保守党和工党。从1945年以来，两党一直轮流执政，在大选中获多数议席因而在下议院拥有多数支持者的政党组建政府，多数党领袖由君主任命为首相。获得第二多数议席的政党则正式成为“反对党”，有自己的领袖和影子内阁。反对党的目的是对政策和立法的制定提出建设性批评,反对它认为不对的提议,修正政府议案,提出自己的方针政策以增加瑕疵大选时本党获胜的机会.4.TheBritishGovernment英国政府HerMajesty’sGovernmentisthebodyofministersresponsiblefortheconductofnationalaffairs.ThePrimeMinisterisappointedbytheQueen.Heisalso,bytradition,FirstLordoftheTreasuryandMinisterfortheCivilService.Bymodernconvention,thePrimeMinisteralwayssitsintheHouseofCommons.HisofficalresidenceisNo.10DowningStreetinLondon.ThePrimeMinisterpresidesovertheCabinet,isresponsiblefortheallocationoffunctionsamongministersandinformstheQueenatregularmeetingsofgeneralbusinessoftheGovernment.CabinetmembersholdmeetingsunderthechairmanshipofthePrimeMinisterforafewhourseachweektodecideGovernmentpolicyonmajorissues.女王陛下政府是由负责处理全国事务的大臣组成的机构.女王任命首相.根据传统,首相也是首席财政大臣和文职部大臣,根据现代惯例,首相必须是下议院议员.他的官邸是伦敦的唐宁街十号.首相主持内阁,负责分配大臣们的职能,在定期会见女王时向女王报告政府事务.内阁在首相的主持下,每周开会几小时,以决定在重大问题上政府的政策.MinistersareappointedbytheQueenontherecommendationofthePrimeMinister.MinistersareresponsiblecollectivelytoParliamentforallCabinetdecisions;individualMinistersareresponsibletoParliamentfortheworkoftheirdepartment.女王根据首相推荐任命大臣.内阁的所有决定由大臣全体负责,各大臣又为各自部门的工作向议会负责.ThegovernmentdepartmentsarestaffedbymembersoftheCivilService,whosedutyistoassistincarryingouttheadministrationoflawspassedbyParliament.CivilServantsdonotbelongtoanypoliticalpartyChangesofGovernmentdonotinvolvechangesindepartmentalstaffarerecruitedmainlybycompetitiveexamination..Thereareabout541800civilservantsinBritainnow.政府各部公务员来自行政事物部,其职责是帮助贯彻议会通过的法律.公务员部门不属于任何政党,政府的变更并不影响部门职员的变更.公务员主要是通过竞争考试录用.英国现约有541800名公务员.Chapter15AmericanHistory美国历史(1600-1900)1.ThediscoveryoftheNewWorld发现新大陆The"firstAmerican"weretheIndians.TheIndianslivedonthelandbyhunting,gathering,fishingandfarming.“最早的美国人”是印地安人.在这块土地上,印第安人以狩猎,采集野果,捕鱼和农业为生.Inthelate15thcentury,ChristopherColumbus,anItaliannavigator,reachedsomesmallislandsinthenowWestIndies.HethoughthehadreachedAsiaanddidn’tknowhehaddiscoveredaNewContinent.Anothernavigator,AmerigoVespucci,provedthatthelandwasnotIndia,butanewcontinent.Therefore,thelandwasnamedAmericaafterhim.15世纪时期,意大利海员克里斯托夫•哥伦布来到现在的西印度洋的一些小岛上，他认为自己已经到了印度,而并不知道他已经发现了一个新大陆.另一个航海家阿美利哥•韦斯普西证实了这块土地不是印度,而是一块新大陆.因此,这块土地以他的名字命名为美洲.2.CausesofthecolonizationoftheNewWorld新大陆殖民化的原因OpportunitywasthemagicwordthatdrewpeopletoAmerica.ItofferedpeopleachancetoliveabetterlifethantheycouldhopeforintheOldWorld.是机会这一富有魔力的字眼吸引人们来到美洲.它给了人们一个过更好生活的机会,在旧大陆是无望得到好生活的.ManysettlerscametoAmericatosearchforreligiousfreedom.Theylefttheirowncountriesbecausetheywerethevictimsofreligiouspersecution.许多人到英国殖民地来是为了寻求宗教自由.他们之所以离开自己的国家,是因为他们是宗教迫害的被迫害者.3.Theoriginal13colonies最初的十三个殖民地ThefirstEnglishcolonyintheAmericaswasfoundedatJamestown,Virginia,in1607.Between1607and1733theBritishestablished13coloniesalongtheeastcoastofNorthAmerican.TheywereVirginia,Maine,NewHampshire,Massachusetts,Connecticut,NewYork,RhodeIsland,Maryland,NorthCarolina,SouthCarolina,NewJersey,PennsylvaniaandGeorgia.美洲的第一块英国殖民地建立于1607弗吉尼亚的詹姆斯镇.1607到1733年间,英国在北美洲的东海岸建立了十三个殖民地.它们是弗吉尼亚,缅因,新罕布什尔,马萨诸塞,康涅狄格,纽约,罗得岛,马里兰,被卡罗来纳,南卡罗来纳,新泽西,宾夕法尼亚和佐治亚.In1620,201ofPilgrimssailedtotheNewWorldinashipcalledMayflower.TheyarrivedatPlymouthandbuiltthePlymouthcolony.在1620年,有201名英国清教徒乘坐一名为“五月花号”的船到达了新大陆.他们来到普利茅斯并建立了殖民地.From1630to1643,some200shipstransportedover20,000EnglishmentotheMassachusettsBaycolony.1630年至1643年,约有200艘船把2万英国人运抵马萨诸塞湾殖民地.ThecolonistswerebuildinganewwayoflifeintheNewWorld.TherewereanumberoffeatureswhichwouldplayaroleinformingtheAmericancharacter.Theywere:representativefromofgovernment,ruleoflaw,respectofindividualrights,religioustoleranceandastrongspiritofindividualenterprise.殖民主义者在新大陆上建立起一种崭新的生活方式.其中许多特点在美国人性格形成中发挥了作用:建立代义制政府,法治,对个人权利的尊重,宗教上的宽容及强烈的个人进取心.4.TheAmericanWarofIndependenceanditsconsequences独立战争及其影响InordertofinancealargearmystationedinAmerica,theBritishgovernmentputintoeffecttheStampTax,collectingmoremoneyfromthecoloniestosupportthearmy,andrequiringthecoloniestoprovidethetroopswithfuel,light,beddingandotherthings.Thepeopleinthecoloniesopposedtheunfairtreatmentandtheydeclared“Notaxationwithoutrepresentation”.Thatis,withouttheirrepresentativestakingpartindecision-making,theyhadnoobligationtopaytaxes.为维持大批驻美军队,英政府实行印花税,从殖民地收取更多的钱来供应军队,并且要求殖民地为驻军提供燃料,灯油,寝具和其他物品.殖民地人民反对不公平待遇和所有这些政策.他们宣称“没有代表权就不交税”,没有他们的代表参加决策,他们就没有义务纳税.In1773,whenshipsofteareachedBostonandthegovernorwasdeterminedtoseethatteawaslegallyprotectedinitsdistribution,severaldozenBostonresidentsdressedasIndiansboardedtheshipsatnightandthrew$75,000worthofteaintotheharbor.Thiscametobeknownasthe“BostonTeaParty”.1773年,满载茶叶的船只到达波士顿,就要求总督坚决依法确保茶叶的销售.而几十个波士顿市民化装成印第安人在夜间登上了船,把价值75000美元的茶叶倾倒入海港.这就是著名的“波士顿倾茶事件”.InSeptember1744,theFirstContinentalCongresswasheldinPhiladelphiawhichencouragedAmericantorefusetobuyBritishgoods.Colonialmilitiaunitswereorganized.1744年9月,第一届大陆会议在费城召开,号召北美人民拒绝买英货.殖民地的民兵组织也建立起来.TheBattlesofLexingtonandConcord莱克星顿的枪声~OnApril19,1775,about1,000BritishsoldiersweresentfromBostontoseizethemilitarysuppliesofthemilitia(calledtheMinutemen)storedinConcord.Patriotswereonthewatch.WhentheBritishsoldierssetout,alanterninthetowerofNorthChurchflashedwordtoPaulReverewhorodeoffonhorsebacktoarousethevillages.WhentheBritishsoldiersarrivedatLexingtontheyweremetbyseveraldozenarmedmilitiamen.Suddenlyashotwasfiredandthenothersfollowed.EightAmericansfelldeadandtenotherswerewounded.AndtheWarofIndependencehadbegun.1775年4月19日,1000多英国士兵从波士顿出发去夺取存放在康科德的民兵组织军需品.爱国者们早有提防.英国士兵一出发,北教堂塔楼上就有人迅速用灯笼把信息传递给保罗•里维尔,保罗马上骑马去向村民报警.英军一到莱克星顿就遇到几十个武装民兵.先是突然一声枪响,然后便枪声大作.8个美国人当场被打死,另外10个也负了伤.北美的独立战争爆发了.TheSecondContinentalCongresswasheldinPhiladelphia.Thedelegatesagreedtosupportthewar.TheCongressfoundedaContinentalArmyandNavyunderthecommandofGeorgeWashington.Italsoappointedacommitteetodraftaformaldeclaration.ThomasJeffersonofVirginiadraftedtheDeclarationofIndependence.TheDeclarationisaclearexplanationofthepoliticaltheorybehindtherevolutionandthistheorycamefromtheBritishphilosopherJohnLocke.OnJuly4,1776,theCongressadoptedthedeclaration.第二次大陆会议再次在费城召开.代表们同意支持战争,大会建立了大陆陆军和海军,由指挥官乔治•华盛顿任总司令.大会还指派一个委员会起草一份正式的宣言.弗吉尼亚的托马斯•杰文逊起草了«独立宣言»,它明确阐述了支撑这场革命的政治理论,这一理论来源于英国著名哲学家约翰•洛克.1776年7月4日,大会通过了这份宣言.OntheChristmasDayof1776,theAmericansdefeatedtheBritishtroopsatTrenton,NewJersey.Notlongafterwards,theAmericanstroopsdefeatedtheBritishatSaratogainNorthernNewYork.ThiswasagreatturningpointoftheWarofIndependence,leadingdirectlytoanalliancebetweentheU.SandFrance.1766年的圣诞节,美军在新泽西的特伦顿挫败英军,这之后不久,美军在萨拉托加击败英军,史称“萨拉托加大捷”这次胜利被认为是北美独立战争的转折点,并直接导致美法联军的建立.AfterCornwallissurrenderedhiswholearmy,theBritishgovernmentaskedforpeace.InSeptember,1783,theTreatyofPariswassigned.BritainrecognizedtheindependenceoftheUnitedstates.康沃利斯率全军投降后,英国政府要求和谈.1783年9月签订了«巴黎条约»,英正式承认美国独立.TheAmericanWarofIndependenceshowsthat,inajustwar,aweaknationcandefeatastrongone.Itwasahistoricevent:bysmashingthefettersofBritishcolonialrule,theAmericanpeoplegainedindependence,whichgavecapitalismachanceforfreerdevelopment.Ithadgreatinternationalinfluence.Forinstance,thecoloniesinSpanishAmericaroseuponeafteranothertooverthrowSpanishcolonialrule.美国独立战争表明,在正义的战争中,弱国是可以打败强国的.这是一次历史性的事件:美国人民打碎了英国殖民统治的枷锁获得了独立,这也使资本主义得到了更加自由的发展机会.同时它还有巨大的国际影响:比如,西属美洲殖民地也相继起来推翻西班牙的殖民统治.5.Establishmentofafederalformofgovernment联邦政府的建立AdraftofaconfederationwasacceptedbyCongressinNovember1777.ThedocumentwasacceptedbyallthestatesbyMatch1781.ItwascalledtheArticlesofConfederation.1777年11月大陆会议通过联邦草案.1781年3月美国各州批准了这一文件并称之为«联邦条例».TheArticleofConfederationwasunusualinmanyways.First,itprovidedfornoking.Second,WhiletheArticlescreatedacentralgovernmentintheformofaCongress,theemphasiswasstillonstatepowers.Third,itwasawrittenconstitution.«联邦条例»在许多方面与众不同.①它不设国王②条例把国会作为中央政府,但仍然侧重各州的权力③«联邦条例»是一部成文的宪法.Therewereseriousweaknesses.Itwasdifficulttocarryonthebusinessofthegovernmentwithoutsomeonetodotheexecutive’sjob.Congresswastoolargeabodytofunctionasgovernment.AndCongresshadnopowertoraisetaxes.条例也有很多缺陷.由于没有人做执行方面的工作,所以政府的各种事务很难处理.国会是一个过于庞大的机构,因而起不到政府的作用,而且国会无权征税.AconferencewasheldinPhiladelphiainMay1787toconsiderwhatshouldbedonetomaketheArticlesofConfederationadequate.AllofthestatesexceptRhodeIslandwererepresentedattheConstitutionalConvention.1787年5月在费城召开的会议上,讨论如何使«联邦条例»能够比较适当.除了罗得岛外,其他所有州代表都出席了这次制宪会议.Intheend,thedifferenceswereresolvedbythe"GreatCompromise"ofJuly16,givingeachstateanequalvoteintheSenatebutmakingrepresentationintheHousereflectthesizeofeachstate’spopulation.7月16日通过的"大妥协"方案最终解决了各方分歧:各州在参议院中享有相等席位,而众议院的席位则应按各州的人口分配.Thosewhohadarguedsuccessfullyintheconventionforanationalsystem,andwhotooktheleadinurgingratification,calledthemselvesFederalists.AndthosewhoopposedtheConstitutionbecameknownastheAnti-federalists.那些在制宪会议上主张全国一体化并获胜的代表们又领导了一场要求通过宪法的运动,他们自称为联邦派;而那些反对通过此宪法的人们则称为反联邦派.TheFederalistPapersareregardedasthebestexplanationoftheconstitutionaswellasoneofthemostimportantworksonpoliticaltheory.«联邦文集»被认为是对美国宪法最好的解释,也是美国最重要的政治理论著作之一.Tenamendmentswereratifiedin1791andbecamethefirsttenamendmentstotheU.S.Constitution-theBillofRights,whichwereintroducedbyJamesMadison.1791年通过了十条修正法案,成为宪法的前十条修正案――«人权法案».GeorgeWashingtonwasthefirstAmericanpresident.Onthe30thofApril,hetooktheoathofoff