《语言学教程》第四章课件

ChapterFour

FromWordtoText1ChapterFour

FromWordtoTextSyntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.2SyntaxisthestudyoftherulWhatarethethreebasicsyntacticrelations?3WhatarethethreebasicsyntaSyntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds:relationsofpositionrelationsofsubstitutabilityrelationsofco-occurrence1.Syntacticrelations

syntacticrelations4SyntacticrelationscanbeanaWhatispositionalrelation?Whataretheothernamesforit?Whathappensifthewordorderischanged?5Whatispositionalrelation?51.1Relationsof

PositionForlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.

Theboykickedtheball

NP1NP2Subject Object61.1RelationsofPositionForlPositionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.Forexample,7Positionalrelation,orWORDOTheboykickedtheball*Boytheballkickedthe*TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacher8Theboykickedtheball8PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelations(组合关系)observedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.9PositionalrelationsareamanWordorderisamongthethreebasicways(wordorder,geneticandareal来自一个地区的

classifications)toclassifylanguagesintheworld:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.EnglishbelongstoSVOtype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.10WordorderisamongthethreeWhatisrelationsofsubstitutability?

Whataretheothernames?11Whatisrelationsofsubstitut1.2RelationofSubstitutability

TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.The

______smiles.

man boy girl121.2RelationofSubstitutabiliItalsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.

strongmanThe tallestboy smiles. prettygirl yesterday.Hewentthere lastweek. thedaybefore.13ItalsoreferstogroupsofmoThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmatic聚合

RelationsbyHjemslev.Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.14ThisisalsocalledAssociativWhatistherelationofco-occurrence?

Istherelationsyntagmaticorparadigmatic?15Whatistherelationofco-occ1.3RelationofCo-occurrence

Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.161.3RelationofCo-occurrenceRelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.17Relationsofco-occurrencepar2.Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents

2.1GrammaticalConstruction

Anysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasalstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes.anappleateanappleMaryateanapple182.Grammaticalconstructionan2.2ConstituentsandPhraseStructureConstituentisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:thegirl(NP)atetheapple(VP)thegirlatetheapple(S)192.2ConstituentsandPhraseStImmediateConstituent直接成分

Analysis

(ICAnalysis)Thegirlatetheapple20ImmediateConstituent直接成分AnalPhraseStructure

TreediagramSNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple21PhraseStructure

Treediagram2222BracketingBracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent/phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit.(((The)(girl))

((ate)

((the)(apple))))[S[NP[DetThe][Ngirl]][VP[Vate][NP[Detthe][Napple]]]]23BracketingBracketingisnotasPractiseUsethetreediagramtoanalysethefollowingsentences:Theboywascrying.Heboughtanoldcarwithhisfirstpaycheque.24PractiseUsethetreediagramtWhat’sthedifferencebetweenendocentricandexocentricconstructions?

Whataretheirrespectivesyntacticconstructions?25What’sthedifferencebetween2.3EndocentricandExocentricConstructionsEndocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead.

262.3EndocentricandExocentric2727Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,usuallyincludingthebasicsentence,theprepositionalphrase,thepredicate(verb+object)construction,andtheconnective(be+complement)construction.28ExocentricconstructionrefersTheboy

smiled.(Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.)Hehid

behind

thedoor.(Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial.)He

kicked

theball.(Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb-objectsequence.)John

seemed

angry.(Afterdivision,theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists.)29Theboysmiled.(NeitherconsttwomaintypesofendocentricconstructionsWhatarethecharacteristicsofcoordinations?Whatarethecharacteristicsofsubordinations?Whataretheirrespectiveplacesinrecursivenessoflanguages?30twomaintypesofendocentric2.4CoordinationandSubordinationEndocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:Coordination312.4CoordinationandSubordinaCoordinationCoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.32CoordinationCoordinationisaCoordinationofNPs:[NPthelady]or[NPthetiger]CoordinationofVPs:[VPgotothelibrary]and[VPreadabook]CoordinationofPPs:

[PPdownthestairs]and[PPoutthedoor]CoordinationofAPs:

[APquiteexpensive]and[APverybeautiful]CoordinationofSs:[SJohnlovesMary]and[SMarylovesJohntoo].33CoordinationofNPs:33SubordinationSubordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.34SubordinationSubordinationretwo

dogs

Head(Mybrother)

candrink(wine).

HeadSwimminginthelake

(isfun).

Head(Thepepperwas)hotbeyondendurance.

Head35two

dogs35SubordinateclausesClausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents.Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses:complementclausesadjunct(oradverbial)clausesrelativeclauses36SubordinateclausesClausescanJohnbelieves[thattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman].

(complementclause)Elizabethopenedherpresents[beforeJohnfinishedhisdinner].

(adverbialclause)Thewoman[thatIlove]ismovingtothesouth.

(relativeclause)

subordinateclause37Johnbelieves[thattheairplaWhatarethebasicfunctionaltermsinsyntax?Whatisasubject?Whatisapredicate?Whatisapredicator?Whatisanobject?38Whatarethebasicfunctional3.SyntacticFunction

Thesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.393.SyntacticFunctionThesynt3.1Subject

Insomelanguages,subjectreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase.ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin,wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase,suchaspaterandfiliusinthefollowingexamples.paterfiliumamat

(thefatherlovestheson)patrumfiliusamat(thesonlovesthefather)403.1SubjectInsomelanguages,InEnglish,thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobetheagent,orthedoeroftheaction,whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent.Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences:Mary

slappedJohn.

■

Adog

bitBill.41InEnglish,thesubjectofasbutisclearlywronginthefollowingexamples:John

wasbittenbyadog.

John

underwentmajorheartsurgery.

Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice,wehavetwootherterms“grammaticalsubject”(John)and“logicalsubject”(adog).42butisclearlywronginthefoAnothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis“whatthesentenceisabout”(i.e.,topic).Again,thisseemstoworkformanysentences,suchasBillisaverycraftyfellow.

butfailsinothers,suchas(Jackisprettyreliable,but)BillIdon’ttrust.AsforBill,Iwouldn’ttakehispromisesveryseriously.

43AnothertraditionaldefinitionAllthreesentencesseemtobe“about”Bill;thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences.Theabovesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject.Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave?subject44AllthreesentencesseemtobeWordorderSubjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement:Sallycollectsstamps.*CollectsSallystamps.45WordorderSubjectordinarilypPro-formsThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject,whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions:Helovesme.Ilovehim.Wethrewstonesatthem.Theythrewstonesatus.46Pro-formsThefirstandthirdpAgreementwiththeverbInthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular,butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverb:Sheangershim.Theyangerhim.

Sheangersthem.

47AgreementwiththeverbIntheContentquestionsIfthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword(whoorwhat),therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged,asinJohnstoletheQueen’spicturefromtheBritishCouncil.WhostoletheQueen’spicturefromtheBritishcouncil?48ContentquestionsIfthesubjecWhatwouldJohnsteal,ifhehadthechance?WhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncil?WheredidJohnstealtheQueen’spicturefrom?Whenanyotherelementofthesentenceisreplacedbyaquestionword,anauxiliaryverbmustappearbeforethesubject.49WhatwouldJohnsteal,ifhehTagquestionAtagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement.Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject,andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence.JohnlovesMary,doesn’the?MarylovesJohn,doesn’tshe?*JohnlovesMary,doesn’tshe?50TagquestionAtagquestionis3.2Predicate

Predicatereferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.Itusuallyexpressesactions,processes,andstatesthatrefertothesubject.Theboy

isrunning.

(process)Peter

broketheglass.(action)Jane

mustbemad!

(state)Thewordpredicatorissuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate.513.2PredicatePredicaterefers3.3Object

Objectisalsoatermhardtodefine.Since,traditionally,subjectcanbedefinedasthedoeroftheaction,objectmayrefertothe“receiver”or“goal”ofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDirectObjectandIndirectObject.Motherbought

adoll.Mothergave

mysister

adoll.

IO

DO

523.3ObjectObjectisalsoateInsomeinflectinglanguages,objectismarkedbycaselabels:theaccusativecasefordirectobject,andthedativecaseforindirectobject.InEnglish,“object”isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpro­nouns).Mothergave

adolltomysister.Johnkicked

me.53Insomeinflectinglanguages,Modernlinguistssuggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation.Johnbroke

theglass.

Theglass

wasbrokenbyJohn.Petersaw

Jane.

Jane

wasseenbyPeter.object54ModernlinguistssuggestthatAlthoughtherearenominalphrasesinthefollowing,theyarebynomeansobjectsbecausetheycannotbetransformedintopassivevoice.Hedied

lastweek.Thematchlasted

threehours.HechangedtrainsatManchester.(*Trains

werechangedbyhimatManchester.)55Althoughtherearenominalphr4.Category

Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountability

Categoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voice564.CategoryThetermcategory4.4.1NumberWhatarethecontrastsinnumber?Whatconstructscanreflectnumber?574.4.1NumberWhatarethecontr4.1NumberNumberisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural,suchasdog:dogs.

Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs,suchasHelaughs:Theylaugh,thisman:thesemen.584.1NumberNumberisagrammatiInotherlanguages,forexample,French,themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles.lechevalroyal(theroyalhorse)leschevauxroyaux(theroyalhorses)59Inotherlanguages,forexampl4.4.2GenderGender:naturalgender&grammaticalgenderIsthereanatrualcorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender?Whatconstructscanmanifestgender?604.4.2GenderGender:naturalge4.2GenderSuchcontrastsas“masculine:feminine:neuter”,“animate:inanimate”,etc.fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Thoughthereisacorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender,theassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases.Forinstance,inLatin,

ignis‘fire’ismasculine,whileflamma

‘flame’isfeminine.614.2GenderSuchcontrastsas“mEnglishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns,and,theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype.he:she:itprince:princessauthor:authoress62EnglishgendercontrastcanonInFrench,genderismanifestedalsobothinadjectivesandarticles.beaucadeau(finegift)bellemaison(finehouse)Lecadeauestbeau.(Thegiftisgood.)Lamaisonestbelle.(Thehouseisbeautiful.)63InFrench,genderismanifesteSometimesgenderchangesthelexicalmeaningaswell,forexample,inFrench:lepoele(thestove)lapoele(thefryingpan)lependule(thependulum)lapendule(theclock)64Sometimesgenderchangesthel4.4.3CaseCase:usedtoindentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.WhatarethecasesconcernedwithEnglishnouns?654.4.3CaseCase:usedtoindent4.3Case

Thecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms“accusative”,“nominative”,“dative”,etc.TherearefivecasesinancientGreekandeightinSanskrit.Finnishhasasmanyasfifteenformallydistinctcasesinnouns,eachwithitsownsyntacticfunction.664.3CaseThecasecategoryisInEnglish,caseisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun,anditisrealizedinthreechannels:inflectionfollowingaprepositionwordorderasmanifestedinteacher:teacher’swith:toamanJohnkickedPeter:PeterkickedJohn67InEnglish,caseisaspecial4.4AgreementAgreement(orconcord)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso,becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory(orcategories).684.4AgreementAgreement(orconThissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric,aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent,Whoseis

thispen?--Oh,

it’s

theoneIlost.oritmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent,aswhenaverbagreeswithitssubjectandobject:Each

person

mayhaveonecoin.

69ThissyntacticrelationshipmaAgreementofnumberbetweennounsandverbs:Thismanruns.

Thebirdflies.

Thesemenrun.

Thesebirdsfly.70Agreementofnumberbetweenno4.5.1PhrasePraseisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclauses.WhatarethebasictypesofphrasesinEnglish?What'sthedifferencebetweenphraseandwordgroup?CantheexamplesinEx4-36becalledwordgroups?714.5.1PhrasePraseisasingleSentenceClausePhraseWord5.Phrase,ClauseandSentence

72Sentence5.Phrase,Clauseandthethreetallestgirls(nominalphrase)hasbeendoing

(verbalphrase)extremelydifficult (adjectivalphrase)tothedoor(prepositionalphrase)veryfast

(adverbialphrase)phrase73thethreetallestgirls(nominClauseFiniteNon-finiteInfinitiveParticipialGerundialSubjectObjectAdverbialRelativeAppositionalComplement74ClauseFiniteNon-finiteInfinitiThebestthingwouldbe

toleaveearly.It’sgreat

foramantobefree.Havingfinishedtheirtask,theycametohelpus.Johnbeingaway,Billhadtodothework.Filledwithshame,heleftthehouse.Alloursavingsgone,westartedlookingforjobs.It’snouse

cryingoverspiltmilk.Doyoumind

myopeningthewindow?75ThebestthingwouldbetoleaSentence:traditionalapproach

simple

Sentence complex non-simple compound76Sentence:traditionalapproachSentence:functionalapproach

Yes/noInterrogativeIndicativewh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptative77Sentence:functionalapproach Basicsentencetypes:BolingerMotherfell.(Nominal+intransitiveverbal)Motherisyoung.(Nominal+copula+complement)MotherlovesDad.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal).MotherfedDadbreakfast.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal+nominal)Thereistime.(There+existential+nominal)

78Basicsentencetypes:BolingerBasicsentencetypes:QuirkSVC

Maryiskind. anurse.SVA

Maryishere. inthehouse.SV

Thechildislaughing.SVO

Somebodycaughttheball.SVOC

Wehaveprovedhimwrong.

afool.SVOA

Iputtheplateonthetable.SVOO

Shegivesmeexpensivepresents.

79Basicsentencetypes:QuirkSVC6.Recursiveness

Recursivenessmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,butithasbecomeanumbrellatermsuchimportantlinguisticphenomenaascoordinationandsubordination,conjoiningandembedding,hypotacticandparatactic.Allthesearemeanstoextendsentences.Howlongcanasentencebe?806.RecursivenessRecursivenessTheoretically,thereisnolimittotheembeddingofonerelativeclauseintoanotherrelativeclause,solongasitdoesnotbecomeanobstacletosuccessfulcommunication.Thesameholdstruefornominalclausesandadverbialclauses.Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenew…81Theoretically,thereisnolimJohn’ssisterJohn’ssister’shusbandJohn’ssister’shusband’suncleJohn’ssister’shusband’suncle’sdaughter,etc.thathouseinBeijingthegardenofthathouseinBeijingthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijingabirdonthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijing82John’s