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答案中的内容（关键词）答案中的内容（关键词）CambridgeCambridge6,Test2,PassageCompleteeachsentencewithCompleteeachsentencewithAnadditionalhandInseventh-centuryEurope,theabilitytocounttoacertainThinkingaboutnumbersasconceptsseparatefromphysicalExpressingnumberdifferentlyaccordingtoclassofwasnecessaryinordertofulfilacivicwasnecessarywhenpeoplebeganwasnecessaryforthedevelopmentofpersistsinallwasusedwhentherangeofnumberwordswascanbetracedbacktoearlyEuropeanwasacharacteristicofearlynumerationQuestions32-DothefollowingstatementsagreegiveninReadingPassage3. Fortheearliesttribes,Questions32-DothefollowingstatementsagreegiveninReadingPassage3. IndigenousTasmaniansusedonlyfourtermstoindicatenumbersofSomepeopleswithsimplenumbersystemsusebodylanguagetopreventmisunderstandingofexpressionsofnumber.AllcultureshavebeenabletoexpresslargenumbersTheword‘thousand’hasAnglo-SaxonIngeneral,peopleinseventh-centuryEuropehadpoorcounting IntheTsimshianlanguage,thenumberforlongobjectsandcanoesisexpressedwiththesameword. TheTsimshianlanguagecontainsbotholderandnewersystemsof Earlypeoplesfounditeasiertocountbyusingtheirfingersratherthanagroupofpebbles.12Oneofthefirstgreatintellectualfeatsofayoungchildislearninghowlotalk,closelyfollowedbylearninghowtocount.Fromearliestchildhoodwearesoboundupwithoursystemofnumerationthatitisafeatofimaginationtoconsidertheproblemsfacedbyearlyhumanswhohadnotyetdevelopedthisfacility.Carefulconsiderationofoursystemofnumerationleadstotheconviction12Itisimpossibletolearnthesequenceofeventsthatledloourdevelopingtheconceptofnumber.Eventheearliestoftribeshadasystemofnumerationthat,ifnotadvanced,wassufficientforthetasksthattheyhadloperform.Ourancestorshadlittleuseforactualnumbers;insteadtheirconsiderationswouldhavebeenmoreofthekindIsthisenough?ratherthanHowmany?whentheywereengagedinfoodgathering,forexample.However,whenearlyhumansfirstbegantoreflectonthenatureofthingsaroundthem,theydiscoveredthattheyneededanideaofnumbersimplytokeeptheirthoughtsinorder.Astheybegantosettle,growplantsandherdanimals,theneedforasophisticatednumbersystembecameparamount.IIwillneverbeknownhowandwhenthisnumerationabilitydeveloped,butitiscertainthatnumerationwaswelldevelopedbythetimehumanshadformedevensemi-permanentsettlements.34Evidenceofearlystagesofarithmeticandnumerationcanbereadilyfound.TheindigenouspeoplesofTasmaniawereonlyabletocountone,two,many;thoseofSouthAfricacountedone,two,twoandone,twotwos,twotwosandone,andsoon.Butinrealsituationsthenumberandwordsareoftenaccompaniedbygesturestohelpresolveanyconfusion.Forexample,whenusingtheone,two,manytypeofsystem,thewordmanywouldmean,LookatmyhandsandseehowmanyfingersIamshowingyou.Thisbasicapproachislimitedintherangeofnumbersthatitcan34Thelackofabilityofsomeculturestodealwithlargenumbersisnotreallysurprising.Europeanlanguages,whentracedbacktotheirearlierversion,areverypoorinnumberwordsandexpressions.TheancientGothicwordforten,tachund,isusedtoexpressthenumber100astachundtachund.Bytheseventhcentury,thewordteonhadbecomeinterchangeablewiththetachundorhundoftheAnglo-Saxonlanguage,andso100wasdenotedashundteontig,ortentimesten.TheaveragepersonintheseventhcenturyinEuropewasno!asfamiliarwithnumbersaswearetoday.Infact,toqualifyasawitnessinacourtoflawamanhadtobeabletocounttonine!56Perhapsthemostfundamentalstepindevelopingasenseofnumberisnottheabilitytocount,butrathertoseethatanumberisreallyanabstractideainsteadofasimpleattachmenttoagroupofparticularobjects.Itmusthavebeenwithinthegraspoftheearliesthumanstoconceivethatfourbirdsaredistinctfromtwobirds;however,itisnotanelementarysteptoassociatethenumber4,asconnectedwithfourbirds,tothenumber4,asconnectedwithfourrocks.Associatinganumberasoneofthequalitiesofaspecificobjectisagreathindrancetothedevelopmentofatruenumbersense.Whenthenumber4canberegisteredinthemindasaspecificword,independentoftheobjectbeingreferenced,theindividualisreadytolakethefirststep56Tracesoftheveryfirststagesinthedevelopmentofnumerationcanbeseeninseverallivinglanguagestoday.ThenumerationsystemoftheTsimshianlanguageinBritishColumbiacontainssevendistinctsetsofwordsfornumbersaccordingtotheclassoftheitembeingcounted:forcountingflatobjectsandanimals,forroundobjectsandtime,forpeople,forlongobjectsandtrees,forcanoes,formeasures,andforcountingwhennoparticularobjectisbeingnumerated.Itseemsthatthelastisalaterdevelopmentwhilethefirstsixgroupsshowtherelicsofanoldersystem.ThisdiversityofnumbernamescanalsobefoundinsomewidelyusedlanguagessuchasJapanese.Intermixedwiththedevelopmentofanumbersenseisthedevelopmentofanabilitytocount.Countingisnotdirectlyrelatedtotheformationofanumberconceptbecauseitispossibletocountbymatchingtheitemsbeingcountedagainstagroupofpebbles,grainsofcorn,orthecounter’sfingers,Theseaidswouldhavebeenindispensabletoveryearlypeoplewhowouldhavefoundtheprocessimpossiblewithoutsomeformofmechanicalaid.Suchaids,whiledifferent,arestillusedevenbythemosteducatedintoday'ssocietyduetotheirconvenience.Allcountingultimatelyinvolvesreferencetosomethingotherthanthethingsbeingcounted.AtfirstitmayhavebeengrainsorpebblesbutnowitisamemorisedsequenceofwordsthathappentobethenamesoftheQuestion27-wasnecessaryinordertofulfilacivicwasnecessarywhenpeoplebeganwasnecessaryforthedevelopmentofpersistsinallwasusedwhentherangeofnumberwordswascanbetracedbacktoearlyEuropeanwasacharacteristicofearlynumerationFortheearliesttribes,theconceptofsufficiencywasmoreimportantthantheconceptIndigenousTasmaniansusedonlyfourtermstoindicatenumbersofSomepeopleswithsimplenumbersystemsusebodylanguagetopreventmisunderstandingofexpressionsofnumber.AllcultureshavebeenabletoexpresslargenumbersTheword‘thousand’hasAnglo-SaxonIngeneral,peopleinseventh-centuryEuropehadpoorcountingIntheTsimshianlanguage,thenumberforlongobjectsandcanoesisexpressedwiththesameTheTsimshianlanguagecontainsbotholderandnewersystemsofEarlypeoplesfounditeasiertocountbyusingtheirfingersratherthanagroupof2732Answer:28332934303531Answer:383940CambridgeCambridge7,Test2,PassageQuestions27-Questions27-ChoosethecorrectC,EandFfromthelistofheadingsbelow.MIRTPasafuturePreferenceformotorisedGovernmentauthorities’InitialimprovementsinmobilityandtransportRequestforimprovedtransportinTransportimprovementsinthenorthernpartoftheImprovementsintherailEffectsofinitialMIRTPCo-operationofdistrict Section Section Questions31-DothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeQuestions31-DothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeclaimsofthewriterinReadingPassage3? PriortothestartofMIRTPtheMaketedistrictwasalmostinaccessibleduringtherainyseason. PhaseIofMIRTPconsistedofasurveyofhouseholdexpenditureontransport. Thesurveyconcludedthatone-fifthor20%ofthehouseholdtransportrequirementasoutsidethelocalarea.MIRTPhopedtoimprovethemovementofgoodsfromdistricttothecountry’swiththewiththeFrequentbreakdownofbusesandtrucksinTheimprovementofsecondaryroadsandTheisolationofMaketeforpartoftheprovidedthepeopleofMaketewithexperienceinrunningbusandtruckwasespeciallysuccessfulinthenorthernpartofthedifferedfromearlierphasesinthatthecommunitybecamelessactivelyimprovedpathsusedfortransportupanddownwasnolongeraproblemoncetheroadshadbeencostlessthanlocallymadewasdoneonlyattherequestoflocalpeoplewhowerewillingtolendawasatfirstconsideredbyMIRTPtobeaffordableforthepeopleofthehinderedattemptstomaketheexistingtransportservicesmorewasthoughttobethemostimportantobjectiveofPhaseQuestionsletter,A,B,CorWhichoftheQuestionsletter,A,B,CortosuggestthatprojectssuchasMIRTPareneededinothertodescribehowMIRTPwasimplementedandhowsuccessfulitwastoexaminehowMIRTPpromotedtheuseoftowarnthatprojectssuchasMIRTParelikelytohaveseriousThedisappointingresultsofmanyconventionalroadtransportprojectsinAfricaledsomeexpertstorethinkthestrategybywhichruraltransportproblemsweretobetackledatthebeginningofthe1980s.ArequestforhelpinimprovingtheavailabilityoftransportwithintheremoteMaketeDistrictofsouthwesternTanzaniapresentedtheopportunitytotryanewapproach.Theconceptof‘integratedruraltransport’wasadoptedinthetaskofexaminingthetransportneedsoftheruralhouseholdsinthedistrict.Theobjectivewastoreducethetimeandeffortneededtoobtainaccesstoessentialgoodsandservicesthroughanimprovedruraltransportsystem.Theunderlyingassumptionwasthatthetimesavedwouldbeusedinsteadforactivitiesthatwouldimprovethesocialandeconomicdevelopmentofthecommunities.TheMaketeIntegratedRuralTransportProject(MIRTP)startedin1985withfinancialsupportfromtheSwissDevelopmentCorporationandwasco-ondinatedwiththehelpoftheTanzaniangovernment.Whentheprojectbegan,MaketeDistrictwasvirtuallytotallyisolatedduringtherainyseason.TheregionalroadwasinsuchbadshapethataccesstothemaintownswasimpossibleforaboutthreemonthsoftheyearRoadtrafficwasextremelyrarewithinthedistrict,andalternativemeansoftransportwererestrictedtodonkeysinthenorthofthedistrict.Peoplereliedprimarilyonthepaths,whichwereslipperyanddangerousduringtherains.Beforesolutionscouldbeproposed,theproblemshadtobeunderstood.Littlewasknownaboutthetransportdemandsoftheruralhouseholds,soPhaseI,betweenDecember1985andDecember1987,focusedonresearch.Thesocio-economicsurveyofmorethan400householdsinthedistrictindicatedthatahouseholdinMaketespent,onaverage,sevenhoursadayontransportingthemselvesandtheirgoods,afigurewhichseemedextremebutwhichhasalsobeenobtainedinsurveysinotherruralareasinAfrica.Interestingfactsregardingtransportwerefound:95%wasonfoot;80%waswithinthelocality;and70%wasrelatedtothecollectionofwaterandfirewoodandtravellingtogrindingmills.Havingdeterminedthemaintransportneeds,possiblesolutionswereidentifiedwhichmightreducethetimeandburden.DuringPhaseII,fromJanuarytoFebruary1991,anumberofapproacheswereimplementedinanefforttoimprovemobilityandaccesstotransport.Animprovementoftheroadnetworkwasconsiderednecessarytoensuretheimportandexportofgoodstothedistrict.TheseimprovementswerecarriedoutusingmethodsthatwereheavilydependentonlabourInadditiontotheimprovementofroads,thesemethodsprovidedtrainingintheoperationofamechanicalworkshopandbusandtruckservices.However,thedifferencefromtheconventionalapproachwasthatthistimeconsiderationwasgiventolocaltransportneedsoutsidetheroadnetwork.Mostgoodsweretransportedalongthepathsthatprovideshort-cutsupanddownthehillsides,butthepathswerearealsafetyriskandmadethejourneyonfootevenmorearduous.Itmadesensetoimprovethepathsbybuildingsteps,handrailsandItwasuncommontofindmeansoftransportthatweremoreefficientthanwalkingbutlesstechnologicallyadvancedthanmotorvehicles.Theuseofbicycleswasconstrainedbytheirhighcostandthelackofavailablespareparts.Oxenwerenotusedatallbutdonkeyswereusedbyafewhouseholdsinthenorthernpartofthedistrict.MIRTPfocusedonwhatwouldbemostappropriatefortheinhabitantsofMaketeintermsofwhatwasavailable,howmuchtheycouldaffordandwhattheywerewillingtoaccept.Aftercarefulconsideration,theprojectchosethepromotionofdonkeys-adonkeycostslessthanabicycle—andtheintroductionofalocallymanufacturablewheelbarrow.AttheendofPhaseII,itwasclearthattheselectedapproachestoMakete’stransportproblemshadhaddifferentdegreesofsuccess.PhaseIII,fromMarch1991toMarch1993,focusedontherefinementandinstitutionalizationoftheseactivities.TheroadimprovementsandaccompanyingmaintenancesystemhadhelpedmakethedistrictcentreaccessiblethroughouttheyearEssentialgoodsfromoutsidethedistricthadbecomemorereadilyavailableatthemarket,andpricesdidnotfluctuateasmuchastheyhaddonebefore.Pathsandsecondaryroadswereimprovedonlyattherequestofcommunitieswhowerewillingtoparticipateinconstructionandmaintenance.Howevertheimprovedpathsimpressedtheinhabitants,andrequestsforassistancegreatlyincreasedsoonafteronlyafewimprovementshadbeencompleted.Theeffortstoimprovetheefficiencyoftheexistingtransportserviceswerenotverysuccessfulbecausemostofthemotorisedvehiclesinthedistrictbrokedownandtherewerenoresourcestorepairthem.Eventheintroductionoflow-costmeansoftransportwasdifficultbecauseofthegeneralpovertyofthedistrict.Thelocallymanufacturedwheelbarrowswerestilltooexpensiveforallbutafewofthehouseholds.Modificationstotheoriginaldesignbylocalcarpenterscutproductiontimeandcosts.Otherlocalcarpentershavebeentrainedinthenewdesignsothattheycanrespondtorequests.Nevertheless,alocallyproducedwoodenwheelbarrowwhichcostsaround5000Tanzanianshillings(lessthanUS$20)inMakete,andisaboutonequarterthecostofametalwheelbarrow,isstilltooexpensiveformostpeople.Donkeys,whichwereimportedtothedistrict,havebecomemorecommonandcontribute,inparticular,tothetransportationofcropsandgoodstomarket.Thosewhohaveboughtdonkeysaremainlyfromricherhouseholdsbut,withanincreasedsupplythroughlocalbreeding,donkeysshouldbecomemoreaffordable.Meanwhile,localinitiativesarepromotingtherentingoutoftheexistingdonkeys.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatadonkey,whichat20,000Tanzanianshillingscostslessthanabicycle,isstillaninvestmentequaltoanaveragehousehold'sincomeoverhalfayear.Thisclearlyillustratestheneedforsupplementarymeasuresifonewantstoassisttheruralpoor.ItwouldhavebeeneasytocriticisetheMIRTPforusingintheearlyphasesa‘top-down’approach,inwhichdecisionsweremadebyexpertsandofficialsbeforebeinghandeddowntocommunities,butitwasnecessarytostarttheprocessfromthelevelofthegovernmentalauthoritiesofthedistrict.Itwouldhavebeendifficulttorespondtotherequestsofvillagersandotherruralinhabitantswithoutthesupportandunderstandingofdistrictauthorities.Today,nobodyinthedistrictarguesabouttheimportanceofimprovedpathsandinexpensivemeansoftransport.Butthisistheresultofdedicatedworkoveralongperiod,particularlyfromtheofficersinchargeofcommunitydevelopment.TheyplayedanessentialroleinraisingawarenessandinterestamongtheruralTheconceptofintegratedruraltransportisnowwellestablishedinTanzania,whereamajorprogramofruraltransportisjustabouttostart.TheexperiencesfromMaketewillhelpinthisinitiative,andMaketeDistrictwillactasareferenceforfuturework.ThreeThreeCambridgeCambridge9,Test1,PassageQuestions14-Questions14-ChoosethecorrectB-Efromthelistofheadingsbelow.SeekingthetransmissionofradiosignalsfromAppropriateresponsestosignalsfromotherVastdistancestoEarth’sclosestAssumptionsunderlyingthesearchforextra-terrestrialKnowledgeofextra-terrestrialLikelihoodoflifeonother Section Questions18-AnswerthequestionsChooseNOMORETHANQuestions18-AnswerthequestionsChooseNOMORETHANTHREEWORDSAND/ORAfromthepassageforeachanswer. WhatkindofsignalsfromotherintelligentcivilizationsareSETIscientistssearchingfor? Howmanystarsaretheworld’smostpowerfulradiotelescopesQuestions21-DothefollowingwiththeviewsofwriterinReadingPassage2?

Cambridge9,Test1,Passage Aliencivilizationsmaybeabletohelpthehumanracetoovercomeseriousproblems. SETIscientistsaretryingtofindalifeformthatresembleshumansinmanyways. TheAmericansandAustralianshaveco-operatedonjointresearchSofarSETIscientistshavepickedupradiosignalsfromseveral TheNASAprojectattractedcriticismfromsomemembersof Ifasignalfromouterspaceisreceived,itwillbeimportanttorespondpromptly.ISTHEREANYBODYOUTTheSearchforExtra-terrestrialThequestionofwhetherwearealoneintheUniversehashauntedhumanityforcenturies,butwemaynowstandpoisedonthebrinkoftheanswertothatquestion,aswesearchforradiosignalsfromotherintelligentcivilizations.Thissearch,oftenknownbytheacronymSETI(searchforextra-terrestrialintelligence),isadifficultone.Althoughgroupsaroundtheworldhavebeensearchingintermittentlyforthreedecades,itisonlynowthatwehavereachedtheleveloftechnologywherewecanmakeadeterminedattempttosearchallnearbystarsforanysignoflife.ISTHEREANYBODYOUTTheprimaryreasonforthesearchisbasiccuriosity—thesamecuriosityaboutthenaturalworldthatdrivesallpurescience.WewanttoknowwhetherwearealoneintheUniverse.Wewanttoknowwhetherlifeevolvesnaturallyifgiventherightconditions,orwhetherthereissomethingveryspecialabouttheEarthtohavefosteredthevarietyoflifeformsthatweseearoundusontheplanet.Thesimpledetectionofaradiosignalwillbesufficienttoanswerthismostbasicofallquestions.Inthissense,SETIisanothercoginthemachineryofpuresciencewhichiscontinuallypushingoutthehorizonofourknowledge.However,thereareotherreasonsforbeinginterestedinwhetherlifeexistselsewhere.Forexample,wehavehadcivilizationonEarthforperhapsonlyafewthousandyears,andthethreatsofnuclearwarandpollutionoverthelastfewdecadeshavetoldusthatoursurvivalmaybetenuous.Willwelastanothertwothousandyearsorwillwewipeourselvesout?Sincethelifetimeofaplanetlikeoursisseveralbillionyears,wecanexpectthat,ifothercivilizationsdosurviveinourgalaxy,theirageswillrangefromzerotoseveralbillionyears.Thusanyothercivilizationthatwehearfromislikelytobefarolder,onaverage,thanourselves.Themereexistenceofsuchacivilizationwilltellusthatlong-termsurvivalispossible,andgivesussomecauseforoptimism.Itisevenpossiblethattheoldercivilizationmaypassonthebenefitsoftheirexperienceindealingwiththreatstosurvivalsuchasnuclearwarandglobalpollution,andotherthreatsthatwehaven’tyetdiscovered.ISTHEREANYBODYOUTIndiscussingwhetherwearealone,mostSETIscientistsadopttwogroundrules.First,UFOs(UnidentifiedFlyingObjects)aregenerallyignoredsincemostscientistsdon’tconsidertheevidenceforthemtobestrongenoughtobearseriousconsideration(althoughitisalsoimportanttokeepanopenmindincaseanyreallyconvincingevidenceemergesinthefuture).Second,wemakeaveryconservativeassumptionthatwearelookingforalifeformthatisprettywelllikeus,sinceifitdiffersradicallyfromuswemaywellnotrecognizeitasalifeform,quiteapartfromwhetherweareabletocommunicatewithit.Inotherwords,thelifeformwearelookingformaywellhavetwogreenheadsandsevenfingers,butitwillneverthelessresembleusinthatitshouldcommunicatewithitsfellows,beinterestedintheUniverse,liveonaplanetorbitingastarlikeourSun,andperhapsmostrestrictively,haveachemistry,likeus,basedoncarbonandwater.Evenwhenwemaketheseassumptions,ourunderstandingofotherlifeformsisstillseverelylimited.Wedonotevenknow,forexample,howmanystarshaveplanets,andwecertainlydonotknowhowlikelyitisthatlifewillarisenaturally,giventherightconditions.However,whenwelookatthe100billionstarsinourgalaxy(theMilkyWay),and100billiongalaxiesintheobservableUniverse,itseemsinconceivablethatatleastoneoftheseplanetsdoesnothavealifeformonit;infact,thebesteducatedguesswecanmake,usingthelittlethatwedoknowabouttheconditionsforcarbon-basedlife,leadsustoestimatethatperhapsonein100,000starsmighthavealife-bearingplanetorbitingit.Thatmeansthatournearestneighborsareperhaps100lightyearsaway,whichisalmostnextdoorinastronomicalterms.ISTHEREANYBODYOUTAnaliencivilizationcouldchoosemanydifferentwaysofsendinginformationacrossthegalaxy,b