1阅读段落结构

温州新通托福冲刺篇章结构TeresaWang2015年1月25日理解文章结构和段落逻辑的意义？修辞题、推断题、细节题、插入题利用常见逻辑提高阅读速度做笔记、提高难题正确率图表题、小结题判断段落主次信息词汇题&指代题10-14题句子简化题（托福长难句）3题细节题和排除题10-15题推理题和修辞题6-9题插入题（段落结构）3题（13.27.41）小结题or图表题（文章结构）3题三种分类（说明文、议论文、历史类）结构类型（分类、对比、比照）结构类型（因果、问题与解决）题型与理解文章图表题-文章汇总TPO12-3WaterinthedesertTPO13-1TypesofsocialgroupsTPO14-2MayawaterproblemsTPO16-3PlanetsinoursolarsystemTPO24-2BreathingduringsleepTPO26-2SurvivalofplantsandanimalsindesertconditionsTPO30-2ThepaceofevolutionarychangeTPO32-3DistributionofTropicalBeeColonies图表题-出题方式

Directions:CompletethetablebelowbymatchingTHEREofthefiveanswerchoiceswith______(介绍句)_______出题方式解题原则细节分类题根据分类寻找细节比较类文章根据文章结构预测项目分解类比较类递进类文章整体结构分类：文章整体结构对小结题的作用：Whenoneanimalattacksanother,itengagesinthemostobviousexampleofaggressivebehavior.Psychologistshaveadoptedseveralapproachestounderstandingaggressivebehaviorinpeople.TheBiologicalApproach.Numerousbiologicalstructuresandchemicalsappeartobeinvolvedinaggression.Oneisthehypothalamus,aregionofthebrain.Inresponsetocertainstimuli,manyanimalsshowinstinctiveaggressivereactions.Thehypothalamusappearstobeinvolvedinthisinbornreactionpattern:electricalstimulationofpartofthehypothalamustriggersstereotypicalaggressivebehaviorsinmanyanimals.Inpeople,however,whosebrainsaremorecomplex,otherbrainstructuresapparentlymoderatepossibleinstincts.Anoffshootofthebiologicalapproachcalledsociobiologysuggeststhataggressionisnaturalandevendesirableforpeople.Sociobiologyviewsmuchsocialbehavior,includingaggressivebehavior,asgeneticallydetermined.ConsiderDarwin'stheoryofevolution.Darwinheldthatmanymoreindividualsareproducedthancanfindfoodandsurviveintoadulthood.Astruggleforsurvivalfollows.Thoseindividualswhopossesscharacteristicsthatprovidethemwithanadvantageinthestruggleforexistencearemorelikelytosurviveandcontributetheirgenestothenextgeneration.Inmanyspecies,suchcharacteristicsincludeaggressiveness.Becauseaggressiveindividualsaremorelikelytosurviveandreproduce,whatevergenesarelinkedtoaggressivebehavioraremorelikelytobetransmittedtosubsequentgenerations.Thesociobiologyviewhasbeenattackedonnumerousgrounds.Oneisthatpeople'scapacitytooutwitotherspecies,nottheiraggressiveness,appearstobethedominantfactorinhumansurvival.Anotheristhatthereistoomuchvariationamongpeopletobelievethattheyaredominatedby,oratthemercyof,aggressiveimpulses.ThePsychodynamicApproach.Theoristsadoptingthepsychodynamicapproachholdthatinnerconflictsarecrucialforunderstandinghumanbehavior,includingaggression.SigmundFreud,forexample,believedthataggressiveimpulsesareinevitablereactionstothefrustrationsofdailylife.Childrennormallydesiretoventaggressiveimpulsesonotherpeople,includingtheirparents,becauseeventhemostattentiveparentscannotgratifyalloftheirdemandsimmediately.Yetchildren,alsofearingtheirparents'punishmentandthelossofparentallove,cometorepressmostaggressiveimpulses.TheFreudianperspective,inasense:seesusas"steamengines."Byholdinginratherthanventing"steam,"wesetthestageforfutureexplosions.Pent-upaggressiveimpulsesdemandoutlets.Theymaybeexpressedtowardparentsinindirectwayssuchasdestroyingfurniture,ortheymaybeexpressedtowardstrangerslaterinlife.Accordingtopsychodynamictheory,thebestwaystopreventharmfulaggressionmaybetoencouragelessharmfulaggression.Inthesteam-engineanalogy,verbalaggressionmayventsomeoftheaggressivesteam.Somightcheeringonone'sfavoritesportsteam.Psychoanalysts,therapistsadoptingapsychodynamicapproach,refertotheventingofaggressiveimpulsesas"catharsis."Catharsisistheorizedtobeasafetyvalve.Butresearchfindingsontheusefulnessofcatharsisaremixed.Somestudiessuggestthatcatharsisleadstoreductionsintensionandaloweredlikelihoodoffutureaggression.Otherstudies,however,suggestthatlettingsomesteamescapeactuallyencouragesmoreaggressionlateron.TheCognitiveApproach.Cognitivepsychologistsassertthatourbehaviorisinfluencedbyourvalues,bythewaysinwhichweinterpretoursituationsandbychoice.Forexample,peoplewhobelievethataggressionisnecessaryandjustified-asduringwartime-arelikelytoactaggressively,whereaspeoplewhobelievethataparticularwaroractofaggressionisunjust,orwhothinkthataggressionisneverjustified,arelesslikelytobehaveaggressively.Onecognitivetheorysuggeststhataggravatingandpainfuleventstriggerunpleasantfeelings.Thesefeelings,inturn,canleadtoaggressiveaction,butnotautomatically.Cognitivefactorsintervene.Peopledecidewhethertheywillactaggressivelyornotonthebasisoffactorssuchastheirexperienceswithaggressionandtheirinterpretationofotherpeople'smotives.Supportingevidencecomesfromresearchshowingthataggressivepeopleoftendistortotherpeople'smotives.Forexample,theyassumethatotherpeoplemeanthemharmwhentheydonot.Catharsis:Inpsychodynamictheory,thepurgingofstrongemotionsortherelievingoftensions.项目分解类图表题Directions:Completethetablebelowbymatchingfiveofthesixanswerchoiceswiththeapproachtoaggressionthattheyexemplify.Thisquestionisworth3points.Biologicalapproach●Psychodynamicapproach●●Cognitiveapproach●●Answerchoices○Aggressiveimpulsestowardpeoplearesometimesexpressedinindirectways.○Aggressivenessisoftenusefulforindividualsinthestruggleforsurvival.○Aggressivebehaviormayinvolveamisunderstandingofotherpeople'sintentions.○Theneedtoexpressaggressiveimpulsesdeclineswithage.○Actingaggressivelyistheresultofachoiceinfluencedbyaperson'svaluesandbeliefs.○Repressingaggressiveimpulsescanresultinaggressivebehavior.文章整体结构对小结题的作用：Aridlands,surprisingly,containsomeoftheworld’slargestriversystems,suchastheMurray-DarlinginAustralia,theRioGrandeinNorthAmerica,theIndusinAsia,andtheNileinAfrica.Theseriversandriversystemsareknownas"exogenous"becausetheirsourceslieoutsidethearidzone.Theyarevitalforsustaininglifeinsomeofthedriestpartsoftheworld.Forcenturies,theannualfloodsoftheNile,Tigris,andEuphrates,forexample,havebroughtfertilesiltsandwatertotheinhabitantsoftheirlowervalleys.Today,riverdischargesareincreasinglycontrolledbyhumanintervention,creatinganeedforinternationalriver-basinagreements.ThefillingoftheAtaturkandotherdamsinTurkeyhasdrasticallyreducedflowsintheEuphrates,withpotentiallyseriousconsequencesforSyriaandIraq.Theflowofexogenousriversvarieswiththeseason.Thedesertsectionsoflongriversrespondseveralmonthsafterrainhasfallenoutsidethedesert,sothatpeakflowsmaybeinthedryseason.Thisisusefulforirrigation,butthehightemperatures,lowhumidities,anddifferentdaylengthsofthedryseason,comparedtothenormalgrowingseason,canpresentdifficultieswithsomecrops.Regularlyflowingriversandstreamsthatoriginatewithinaridlandsareknownas"endogenous."Thesearegenerallyfedbygroundwatersprings,andmanyissuefromlimestonemassifs,suchastheAtlasMountainsinMorocco.Basalticrocksalsosupportsprings,notablyattheJabalAl-ArabontheJordan-Syriaborder.Endogenousriversoftendonotreachtheseabutdrainintoinlandbasins,wherethewaterevaporatesorislostintheground.Mostdesertstreambedsarenormallydry,buttheyoccasionallyreceivelargeflowsofwaterandsediment.Desertscontainlargeamountsofgroundwaterwhencomparedtotheamountstheyholdinsurfacestoressuchaslakesandrivers.Butonlyasmallfractionofgroundwaterentersthehydrologicalcycle—feedingtheflowsofstreams,maintaininglakelevels,andbeingrecharged(orrefilled)throughsurfaceflowsandrainwater.Inrecentyears,groundwaterhaseanincreasinglyimportantsourceoffreshwaterfordesertdwellers.TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeandtheWorldBankhavefundedattemptstosurveythegroundwaterresourcesofaridlandsandtodevelopappropriateextractiontechniques.Suchprogramsaremuchneededbecauseinmanyaridlandsthereisonlyavagueideaoftheextentofgroundwaterresources.Itisknown,however,thatthedistributionofgroundwaterisuneven,andthatmuchofitliesatgreatdepths.Groundwaterisstoredintheporespacesandjointsofrocksandunconsolidated(unsolidified)sedimentsorintheopeningswidenedthroughfracturesandweathering.Thewater-saturatedrockorsedimentisknownasan"aquifer".Becausetheyareporous,sedimentaryrocks,suchassandstonesandconglomerates,areimportantpotentialsourcesofgroundwater.Largequantitiesofwatermayalsobestoredinlimestoneswhenjointsandcrackshavebeenenlargedtoformcavities.Mostlimestoneandsandstoneaquifersaredeepandextensivebutmaycontaingroundwatersthatarenotbeingrecharged.Mostshallowaquifersinsandandgraveldepositsproduceloweryields,buttheycanberapidlyrecharged.Somedeepaquifersareknownas"fossilwaters.Theterm"fossil"describeswaterthathasbeenpresentforseveralthousandyears.Theseaquifersbecamesaturatedmorethan10,000yearsagoandarenolongerbeingrecharged.

求同存异比较类图表题13.Directions:Selectfromthesevensentencesbelow,thetwosentencesthatcorrectlycharacterizeendogenousriversandthethreesentencesthatcorrectlycharacterizeexogenousrivers.Drageachsentenceyouselectintotheappropriatecolumnofthetable.TwoofthesentenceswillNOTbeused.Thisquestionisworth3points.EndogenousRivers●●ExogenousRivers●●●AnswerChoices○Theirwatergenerallycomesfromgroundwatersprings.○Theirwaterissaltierthanthewaterofmostotherrivers.○Theyincludesomeoftheworld'slargestrivers.○Theyoriginateoutsidethedesert.○Theyoftendrainintoinlandbasinsanddonotreachthesea.○Theycontaintoomuchsilttobeusefulforirrigation.文章整体结构对小结题的作用：Itshouldbeobviousthatcetaceans—whales,porpoises,anddolphins—aremammals.Theybreathethroughlungs,notthroughgills,andgivebirthtoliveyoung.Theirstreamlinedbodies,theabsenceofhindlegs,andthepresenceofafluke1andblowhole2cannotdisguisetheiraffinitieswithlanddwellingmammals.However,unlikethecasesofseaottersandpinnipeds(seals,sealions,andwalruses,whoselimbsarefunctionalbothonlandandatsea),itisnoteasytoenvisionwhatthefirstwhaleslookedlike.Extinctbutalreadyfullymarinecetaceansareknownfromthefossilrecord.Howwasthegapbetweenawalkingmammalandaswimmingwhalebridged?Missinguntilrecentlywerefossilsclearlyintermediate,ortransitional,betweenlandmammalsandcetaceans.Veryexcitingdiscoverieshavefinallyallowedscientiststoreconstructthemostlikelyoriginsofcetaceans.In1979,ateamlookingforfossilsinnorthernPakistanfoundwhatprovedtobetheoldestfossilwhale.ThefossilwasofficiallynamedPakicetusinhonorofthecountrywherethediscoverywasmade.Pakicetuswasfoundembeddedinrocksformedfromriverdepositsthatwere52millionyearsold.TheriverthatformedthesedepositswasactuallynotfarfromanancientoceanknownastheTethysSea.Thefossilconsistsofacompleteskullofanarchaeocyte,anextinctgroupofancestorsofmoderncetaceans.Althoughlimitedtoaskull,thePakicetusfossilprovidespreciousdetailsontheoriginsofcetaceans.Theskulliscetacean-likebutitsjawboneslacktheenlargedspacethatisfilledwithfatoroilandusedforreceivingunderwatersoundinmodernwhales.Pakicetusprobablydetectedsoundthroughtheearopeningasinlandmammals.Theskullalsolacksablowhole,anothercetaceanadaptationfordiving.Otherfeatures,however,showexpertsthatPakicetusisatransitionalformbetweenagroupofextinctflesh-eatingmammals,themesonychids,andcetaceans.IthasbeensuggestedthatPakicetusfedonfishinshallowwaterandwasnotyetadaptedforlifeintheopenocean.Itprobablybredandgavebirthonland.AnothermajordiscoverywasmadeinEgyptin1989.Severalskeletonsofanotherearlywhale,Basilosaurus,werefoundinsedimentsleftbytheTethysSeaandnowexposedintheSaharadesert.Thiswhalelivedaround40millionyearsago,12millionyearsafterPakicetus.Manypleteskeletonswerefoundbuttheyincluded,forthefirsttimeinanarchaeocyte,acompletehindlegthatfeaturesafootwiththreetinytoes.Suchlegswouldhavebeenfartoosmalltohavesupportedthe50-foot-longBasilosaurusonland.Basilosauruswasundoubtedlyafullymarinewhalewithpossiblynonfunctional,orvestigial,hindlegs.Anevenmoreexcitingfindwasreportedin1994,alsofromPakistan.ThenowextinctwhaleAmbulocetusnatans("thewalkingwhalethatswam")livedintheTethysSea49millionyearsago.Itlivedaround3millionyearsafterPakicetusbut9millionbeforeBasilosaurus.Thefossilluckilyincludesagoodportionofthehindlegs.Thelegswerestrongandendedinlongfeetverymuchlikethoseofamodernpinniped.Thelegswerecertainlyfunctionalbothonlandandatsea.Thewhaleretainedatailandlackedafluke,themajormeansofotioninmoderncetaceans.Thestructureofthebackboneshows,however,thatAmbulocetusswamlikemodernwhalesbymovingtherearportionofitsbodyupanddown,eventhoughaflukewasmissing.Thelargehindlegswereusedforpropulsioninwater.Onland,whereitprobablybredandgavebirth,Ambulocetusmayhavemovedaroundverymuchlikeamodernsealion.Itwasundoubtedlyawhalethatlinkedlifeonlandwithlifeatsea递进类小结题13.Directions:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Someanswerchoicesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.Thispassagediscussesfossilsthathelptoexplainthelikelyoriginsofcetaceans—whales,porpoises,anddolphins.●●●AnswerChoices○Recentdiscoveriesoffossilshavehelpedtoshowthelinkbetweenlandmammalsandcetaceans.○ThediscoveryofAmbulocetusnatansprovidedevidenceforawhalethatlivedbothonlandandatsea.○TheskeletonofBasilosauruswasfoundinwhathadbeentheTethysSea,anarearichinfossilevidence.○Pakicetusistheoldestfossilwhaleyettobefound.○Fossilsthoughttobetransitionalformsbetweenwalkingmammalsandswimmingwhaleswerefound.○Ambulocetus'hindlegswereusedforpropulsioninthewater.出题方式出题方式Directions:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Somesentencesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.Thispassagediscusses______(介绍句)_______AnswerChoices出题方式Directions:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Somesentencesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.Thispassagediscusses______(介绍句)_______重要信息和总结性信息AnswerChoices重要信息非总结总结性信息未出现小细节解题原则阅读介绍句浏览六选项，排除错误选项待考证选项：细节、事例、人物、地名、数字、比较根据文章框架及核心选定时间不够：选最长时间够：逐句分析选项属于文章事实细节选项出现比较逻辑选项出现绝对化语气词选项出现时间，条件，方式状语（须验证）错误选项特征Muchofthegroundisactuallysaturatedwithwater.○1.Sedimentsthatholdwaterwerespreadbyglaciersandarestillspreadbyriversandstreams.○2.Waterisstoredundergroundinbedsofloosesandandgravelorincementedsediment.○3.Thesizeofasaturatedrock’sporesdetermineshowmuchwateritwillretainwhentherockisputinadryplace.○4.Groundwateroftenremainsundergroundforalongtimebeforeitemergesagain.○5.Likesandstone,basaltisacrystallinerockthatisveryporous.○6.Bedsofunconsolidatedsedimentsaretypicallylocatedatinlandsitesthatwereonceunderwater.例题解析(1a)Muchofthegroundisactuallysaturatedwithwater.○1.Sedimentsthatholdwaterwerespreadbyglaciersand

arestillspreadbyriversandstreams.○2.Waterisstoredundergroundinbedsofloosesandandgravelorincementedsediment.○3.Thesizeofasaturatedrock’sporesdetermineshowmuchwateritwillretain

whentherockisputinadryplace.○4.Groundwateroftenremainsundergroundforalongtimebefore

itemergesagain.○5.Likesandstone,basaltisacrystallinerock

thatisveryporous.○6.Bedsofunconsolidatedsedimentsaretypicallylocatedatinlandsitesthatwereonceunderwater.例题解析(1b)Muchofthegroundisactuallysaturatedwithwater.○1.Sedimentsthatholdwaterwerespreadbyglaciersandarestillspreadbyriversandstreams.○2.Waterisstoredundergroundinbedsofloosesandandgravelorincementedsediment.○3.Thesizeofasaturatedrock’sporesdetermineshowmuchwateritwillretainwhentherockisputinadryplace.○4.Groundwateroftenremainsundergroundforalongtimebeforeitemergesagain.○5.Likesandstone,basaltisacrystallinerockthatisveryporous.○6.Bedsofunconsolidatedsedimentsaretypicallylocatedatinlandsitesthatwereonceunderwater.例题解析(1c)Anthropologistshavedevelopedmanytheoriestohelpunderstandwhyandhowtheateroriginated.○1.Thepresenceoftheaterinalmostallsocietiesisthoughttohaveoccurredbecauseearlystorytellerstraveledtodifferentgroupstotelltheirstories.○2.Manytheoristsbelievethattheaterariseswhensocietiesactoutmythstopreservesocialwell-being.○3.Themoresophisticatedsocietiesbecame,thebettertheycouldinfluencedesirableoccurrencesthroughritualizedtheater.○4.Sometheoriesoftheaterdevelopmentfocusonhowtheaterwasusedbygroupleaderstogroupleadersgovernothermembersofsociety.○5.Theatermayhavecomefrompleasurehumansreceivefromstorytellingandmovingrhythmically.○6.Thehumancapacitiesforimitationandfantasyareconsideredpossiblereasonswhysocietiesdeveloptheater.例题解析(2a)Anthropologistshavedevelopedmanytheoriestohelpunderstandwhyandhowtheateroriginated.○1.Thepresenceoftheaterinalmostallsocietiesisthoughttohaveoccurredbecauseearlystorytellerstraveledtodifferentgroupstotelltheirstories.○2.Manytheoristsbelievethattheaterariseswhensocietiesactoutmythstopreservesocialwell-being.○3.Themoresophisticatedsocietiesbecame,thebettertheycouldinfluencedesirableoccurrencesthroughritualizedtheater.○4.Sometheoriesoftheaterdevelopmentfocusonhowtheaterwasusedbygroupleaderstogovernothermembersofsociety.○5.Theatermayhavecomefrompleasurehumansreceivefromstorytellingandmovingrhythmically.○6.Thehumancapacitiesforimitationandfantasyareconsideredpossiblereasonswhysocietiesdeveloptheater.例题解析(2b)Anthropologistshavedevelopedmanytheoriestohelpunderstandwhyandhowtheateroriginated.○1.Thepresenceoftheaterinalmostallsocietiesisthoughttohaveoccurredbecauseearlystorytellerstraveledtodifferentgroupstotelltheirstories.○2.Manytheoristsbelievethattheaterariseswhensocietiesactoutmythstopreservesocialwell-being.○3.Themoresophisticatedsocietiesbecame,thebettertheycouldinfluencedesirableoccurrencesthroughritualizedtheater.○4.Sometheoriesoftheaterdevelopmentfocusonhowtheaterwasusedbygroupleaderstogovernothermembersofsociety.○5.Theatermayhavecomefrompleasurehumansreceivefromstorytellingandmovingrhythmically.○6.Thehumancapacitiesforimitationandfantasyareconsideredpossiblereasonswhysocietiesdeveloptheater.例题解析(2c)Atthetimberline,whetherupperorlower,thereisaprofoundchangeinthegrowthoftreesandotherplants.○1.Birchisoneofthefewspeciesoftreethatcansurviveintheextremeenvironmentsoftheuppertimberline.○2.Thereisnoagreementamongscientistsastoexactlywhyplantgrowthissharplydifferentaboveandbelowtheuppertimberline.○3.Thetemperatureattheuppertimberlineisprobablymoreimportantinpreventingtreegrowththanfactorssuchastheamountofsnowfallortheforceofwinds.○4.Thegeographicallocationofanupperti